REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


,  IQ° 
^Accession  No.    $2f)i)2'"      •    Class  No. 


'km 


THE  CALORIFIC  POWER 
OF  FUELS. 

WITH 

A   COLLECTION    OF   AUXILIARY  TABLES 

AND  TABLES  SHOWING  THE  HEAT 

OF   COMBUSTION    OF    FUELS, 

SOLID,   LIQUID   AND 

GASEOUS. 

TO    WHICH    IS    APPENDED 

THE   REPORT   OF   THE   COMMITTEE   ON  BOILER    TESTS 

OF   THE   AMERICAN  SOCIETY   OF  MECHANICAL 

ENGINEERS   (DECEMBER,    1899.) 


HERMAN    POOLE,    F.C.S., 

Member  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry  ;  the  American  Chemical  Society , 

the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers;  the  American 

Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  ;  etc.,  etc. 


SECOND   EDITION,   REVISED   AND   ENLARGED. 


JOHN   WILEY   &   SONS. 

LONDON:    CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED. 

1900. 


tfO 


Copyright,  1898,  1900, 

BY 

HERMAN    POOLE. 


TO  MY  WIFE 

THIS  BOOK  IS  AFFECTIONATELY 
DEDICATED. 


82992 


PREFACE. 


THE  books  on  fuels  hitherto  published  in  English,  contain 
only  a  few  scattered  facts  regarding  their  calorific  powers,  how 
they  are  obtained,  and  the  practical  use  made  of  them.  Quite 
frequently  these  books  are  consulted  for  these  facts,  and  the 
.information  they  do  contain  is  utilized  to  its  fullest  extent. 
It  was  thought  that  a  book  especially  devoted  to  this  subject 
^containing  all  the  reliable  data  might  be  of  interest,  and  in 
•furtherance  of  that  idea  this  book  is  published. 

The  work  commenced  as  a  translation  of  M.  Scheurer-Kest- 
ner's  "Pouvoir  Calorifique  des  Combustibles  "/  but  changes  be- 
came necessary  to  adapt  it  to  American  methods  and  data, 
•and  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  simply  use  the  skeleton  of  the 
work  and  fill  it  in,  as  considered  best.  Even  this  skeleton  has 
{hardly  been  preserved  intact,  as  the  arrangement  of  much  of 
the  material  has  been  changed,  many  portions  omitted,  many 
new  ones  supplied,  and  in  some  of  the  original  discussions  the 
argument  has  been  so  changed  as  to  point  nearly  opposite  to 
that  advocated  by  M.  Scheurer-Kestner. 

The  work  embraces  only  that  portion  of  calorimetric  de- 
terminations  having   a    bearing    on   fuel  values.      A   concise 
description  is  given  of  the  leading  calorimeters,  those   most 
commonly  used  being  described  more  fully  than  the  others,  and 
ome  examples  of  working  and  calculations  are  added. 

Coal  being  the  principal  fuel  naturally  receives  more  space 
than  any  of  the  others,  and  most  of  the  examples  and  calcula- 
tions are  based  on  results  from  this  fuel.  The  other  fuels  are 


vi  PREFA  C£. 

discussed  briefly,  some  space  being  given  to  the  heats  of  for- 
mation of  the  different  kinds  of  gas,  and  the  advantages  gained 
by  their  use.  A  short  account  of  theoretical  flame  tempera- 
tures is  given,  with  the  methods  of  calculating  and  applying 
the  same. 

The  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Boiler  Tests,  submitted 
to  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1897,  is  published  in  full,  as  are  also  several  of  the  appen- 
dices to  the  report.  This  report  revises  the  old  method  of 
1885,  and  gives  the  most  recent  methods  of  testing  boilers 
and  reporting  the  same. 

A  set  of  tables  of  constants  used  in  this  and  allied  sub- 
jects is  given,  and  finally  a  collection  of  calorimetric  and  ana- 
lytic data  on  all  the  kinds  of  fuel  used.  It  is  believed  that  these 
tables  are  fuller  and  more  complete  than  any  previously  pub- 
lished in  any  language,  and  in  collating  them  all  available  books 
and  periodicals  have  been  freely  used.  In  all  instances  where 
the  author  was  known,  he  has  been  credited  with  his  results. 
Of  course  in  such  a  large  amount  some  unreliable  data  may 
have  crept  in,  but  all  possible  pains  have  been  taken  to  exclude 
any  such.  The  list  of  periodicals,  etc.,  consulted  will  be  found 
following  the  table  of  contents. 

For  help  in  the  work,  and  especially  the  tabular  matter,  the 
author  is  under  obligations  to  many.  Prominent  among  them 
are  Profs.  R.  C.  Carpenter,  E.  E.  Slosson,  W.  O.  Atwater, 
and  D.  S.  Jacobus;  and  Messrs.  William  Kent,  R.  S.  Hale, 
F.  L.  Slocum,  W.  B.  Day,  and  C.  E.  Emery.  The  Astor 
Library  and  the  Libraries  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers  and  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
were  freely  used,  and  much  help  obtained  from  the  librarians. 
Most  of  the  cuts  are  from  Scheurer-Kestner's  book;  a  few 
were  taken  from  Lunge  and  Hurter's  Alkali-Maker's  Hand- 
book; some  from  Groves  and  Thorpe's  work  on  Fuels;  a 
few  from  the  Reports  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers;  two  from  Dingler's  Polytechnic  Journal;  one 


PREFA  CE.  VI 1 

from    the    Scientific  American    Supplement ;    and    one    from 
Engineering  News. 

The  work  has  been  unavoidably  delayed  waiting  for  de- 
sired data,  some  of  which  came  too  late  to  be  used. 

The  author  knows  well  that  the  book  is  far  from  perfect 
or  complete,  but  it  is  as  near  so  as  could  be  made  with  the 
diverse  kinds  of  material  obtainable.  Some  errors,  especially 
in  the  tables,  may  be  found,  which  he  hopes  to  correct  in  the 
future. 

That  it  may  be  found  of  service  and  aid  to  others  in  their 
work  on  fuels  is  the  sincere  wish  of  the  author. 

HERMAN    POOLE. 

NEW  YORK,  Jan.  i,  1898. 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND   EDITION. 


THE  reception  accorded  the  first  edition  has  induced  the 
author  to  make  many  changes  and  improvements  in  the  present 
one. 

Besides  making  the  necessary  typographical  corrections, 
much  new  matter  has  been  added  and  the  tables  of  fuel 
determinations  considerably  enlarged,  so  that  they  now  include 
the  fuels  of  the  known  world. 

Among  the  changes  made  may  be  mentioned  the  new 
chapter  on  Liquid  Fuels,  which  has  been  entirely  rewritten  ;  the 
new  pages  on  ice-calorimeters,  Jones  Sampler,  Kent  Draft 
Gauge,  new  smoke  tests,  new  table  of  specific  heat  of  water, 
including  all  the  recent  determinations,  Prof.  Jacobus'  article 
on  moisture  in  steam,  new  calorimeter  pages  and  examples,, 
etc.,  etc. 

In  the  fuel  tables  will  be  found  valuable  and  extensive 
additions  to  the  fuels  of  the  United  States,  Germany,  Scotland, 
India,  Russia,  Bulgaria,  Africa,  and  other  countries. 

The  entire  Appendix  is  new  and  is  in  accord  with  the  report 
of  the  Boiler  Test  Committee  of  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  for  Dec. 
1899.  Many  other  changes  will  be  noticed  in  most  of  the 
chapters  of  the  book. 

The  interest  in  the  work  manifested  by  the  leading  engi- 
neers and  chemists  not  only  of  the  United  States,  but  of  Europe 
also,  is  very  gratifying,  and  it  gives  me  pleasure  to  be  able  to 
acknowledge  cooperation  from  Hofrath  Professor  H.  Bunte  of 


PREFA  CE.  IX 

Carlsruhe ;  Professor  W.  Louguinine  of  Moscow ;  Professor 
H.  Hoefer  of  the  Oesterreichische  Zeitschrift  fur  Berg-  und 
Htittenwesen,  Vienna  ;  Professor  W.  Carrick  Anderson  of  Glas- 
gow; Professor  Aime"  Witz  of  Lille;  Dr.  F.  Liihn,  chemist 
of  the  Imperial  Institute,  London ;  Professor  R.  C.  Carpenter 
of  Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;  W.  B.  Phillips  of  the  Alabama  Geological 
Survey  ;  Prof.  D.  S.  Jacobus  of  Hoboken,  N.  J.  ;  Chf.  Eng. 
D.  P.  Jones,  U.  S.  N.  of  Pittsburg ;  Dr.  R  L.  Slocum  of  Pitts- 
burg,  and  many  others.  Especial  mention  may  be  made  of  the 
new  and  previously  unpublished  determinations  of  the  Bul- 
garian Coal,  kindly  sent  by  H.  B.  M.  Consul  F.  G.  Freeman, 
Sofia,  Bulgaria. 

That  this  edition  with  its  improvements  may  meet  with  as 
good  a  reception  as  the  first  one  is  the  sincere  hope  of  the 
author. 

HERMAN    POOLE. 

NEW  YORK,  February  i,  1900. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PREFACE „ .  „ , v 

CONTENTS xi 

AUTHORITIES ,    xv 


CHAPTER   I. 

FUELS i 

Definitions.  Fuels.  Calorific  Value.  Heat  of  Combustion. 
Thermometers.  Metastatic  Thermometers. 

CHAPTER    II. 

METHOD  OF  DETERMINING  HEAT  OF  COMBUSTION 7 

Methods  Depending  on  the  Composition.  On  the  Reducing 
Power. 

CHAPTER    III. 

CALORIMETERS 12 

Installation.     Evaluation  in  Water.     Correction  for  Readings. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

CALORIMETERS  WITH  CONSTANT  PRESSURE 20 

Calorimeters  using  Air  or  Oxygen.  Favre  and  Silbermann's. 
Alexejew's.  Fischer's.  Thomsen's.  Carpenter's.  Schwack- 
hofer's.  W.  Thompson's.  Barrus's.  Hartley  and  Junker's. 

CHAPTER   V. 

CALORIMETERS  WITH  CONSTANT  VOLUME 45 

Relation  of  Constant  Volume  and  Constant  Pressure.  An- 
drews'. Berthelot's.  Description.  Working.  Calculation. 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VI. 

PAGE 

MAHLER'S  BOMB 57 

Description.  Working.  Calculation.  Examples  ;  Colza  Oil, 
Coal,  Gas,  Coke.  Atwater's.  Kroeker's.  Walther-Hempel. 
Witz's.  Ice  Calorimeters. 

CHAPTER   VII. 

SOLID  FUELS •  •  • 75 

Coal.     Lignite.     Peat.     Coke.     Charcoal.     Wood. 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

LIQUID  FUELS 88 

Shale  Oils.     Petroleum.      Gas  Oil. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

GASEOUS  FUELS 92 

Heat  of  Combustion  from  Analysis.  Coal  Gas.  Gas  of  Gaso- 
genes.  Producer  or  Air  Gas.  Water  and  Mixed  Gas.  Natural 
Gas. 

CHAPTER   X. 

CALORIFIC  POWER  OF  COAL  BURNT  UNDER  A  STEAM-BOILER 109 

Distribution  of  Heat.  Weight  of  Fuel.  Sampling  the  Fuel. 
Analysis  of  the  Coal.  Analysis  of  the  Cinders.  Duration  of  the 
Test.  The  Water  Evaporated.  Temperature  of  the  Steam. 
Moisture  of  Steam.  Corrections  for  Quality  of  Steam.  Quality 
of  Superheated  Steam.  Determination  of  Moisture  in  Horizontal 
Pipe.  Combined  Calorimeter  and  Separator. 

CHAPTER    XL 

CALORIFIC    POWER  OF    COAL    BURNT   UNDER  A  STEAM-BOILER — CON- 
TINUED.    AIR  SUPPLIED  AND  WASTE  GASES 125 

Volume  of  Air  Necessary  to  Combustion.  Volume  of  Waste 
gases  by  Analysis.  Gas  Sampler.  Analysis  of  Gases.  Calcula- 
tion of  Volume  from  Analysis.  Calculation  of  Volume  of  Air 
Supplied.  Calculation  of  Weight  of  Waste  Gases  from  Analysis. 
Volume  of  Waste  Gases  by  the  Anemometer.  Fletcher's  Ane- 
mometer. Segur's  Differential  Gauge.  Hirn's  Method.  Kent's 
Gauge.  Dasymeter.  Econometer.  Gas  Composimeter.  Tempera- 
ture of  Waste  Gases.  Pneumatic  Pyrometer.  Carbon  in  Smoke. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

PAG& 

CALORIFIC    POWER  OF   COAL    BURNT    UNDER   A   STEAM-BOILER  —  CON- 
TINUED.    CALCULATION  OF  THE  HEAT  UNITS  ......................  15^ 

Heat  of  Aqueous  Vapor.     Heat  of  Waste  Gases.     Heat  of  the 
Temperature.     Heat  of  the  Hygroscopic  and  Combustion  Water. 
Calories  of  the  Combustible  Gases.     Calories  due  to  Soot.     Dis- 
tribution of  Calories  —  Loss. 
FLAME  AND  FLAME  TEMPERATURES  ..................................  168 

WEIGHT  AND  HEAT  UNITS  OF  CARBON  VAPOR  .......................   173, 

EVAPORATIVE  POWER  OF  FUEL  ......................................   174 


APPENDIX. 

REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  THE  REVISION  OF  THE  SOCIETY  CODE 
OF  1885,  RELATIVE  TO  A  STANDARD  METHOD  OF  CONDUCTING  STEAM- 
BOILER  TRIALS  ..................................................   1  75. 

Report  of  Committee.      Rules  for  Conducting  Trial.     Form  for 
Report. 
TABLES  .............................................................  ig% 

FUEL  TABLES  .......................................................  20^ 

INDEX  .............................................................  263 


AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED. 


The  following  list  contains  the  names  of  the  different  pub- 
lications consulted  to  obtain  data,  especially  for  the  tables. 
Dates  are  not  usually  given,  as  in  many  cases  the  entire  file 
was  used  since  1868. 

Alkali  Reports,  England. 

American  Engineer. 

American  Gas  Light  Journal. 

American  Manufacturer. 

Annalen  der  Chemie  und  Physik. 

Annales  de  Chimie  et  Physique. 

Annales  des  Mines. 

Australian  Mining  Standard. 

Bayerisches  Industrie  und  Gewerbeblatter. 

Bell,  Sir  I.  L. ,  Chemical  Phenomena  of  Iron-smelting. 

Berichte  der  Deutscher  Chemischer  Gesellschaft. 

Berthelot,  Essai  de  Mecanique  Chimique. 

Berthier,  Traite  des  Essais  par  la  Voie  seche. 

Bulletin  No.  21,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture. 

"        University  of  Wyoming. 

"        de  la  Societe  Industrielle  de  Mulhouse. 

"        de  la  Societe  Chimique  de  Paris. 

de   1'Association    des   Proprietaires   d'Appareils   a  Vapeur  du 

Nord  de  la  France. 
Chemical  News. 
Colliery  Guardian. 

Comptes  Rendus  de  1'Academie  des  Sciences. 
Crookes  and  Rohrig,  Metallurgy. 
Dingler's  Polytechnisches  Journal. 
Dufrenoy,  Traite  de  Mineralogie. 
Electrical  Engineering. 


AUTHORITIES   CONSULTED. 


Engineer. 

Engineering. 

Engineering  and  Mining  Journal. 

Engineering  Mechanics. 

Engineering  News. 

Groves  and  Thorpe,  Chemical  Technology,  Vol.  I. 

Gliickauf. 

Ice  and  Refrigeration. 

Iron  Age. 

Isherwood,  B.  M.,  Engineering  Precedents. 

"  "        Researches  in  Steam  Engineering. 

Jahrbuch  der  K.  K.  Berg-Akademie. 

"          fur  Geologic. 

Johnson,  W.  B.,  Report  to  Congress,  U.  S.  A.,  1844. 
Journal  American  Chemical  Society. 

"        Canadian  Mining  Institute. 

"        Chemical  Society. 

"        Franklin  Institute. 

"        Society  of  Chemical  Industry. 

*'        Imperial  Institute. 

*'        Iron  and  Steel  Institute. 

"     .  de  1'Eclairage  au  Gaz. 

"        des  Usines  a  Gaz. 

du  Gaz  et  de  1'Electricite. 

*4        ftir  Gasbeleuchtung. 

"        fiir  Praktische  Chemie. 
fiir  Angewandte  Chemie. 

"        of  Gas  Lighting. 
Kent,  William,  Pocket-book. 
Le  Genie  Civil. 

Memoires  de  la  Societe  des  Ingenieurs  Civiis. 
Mineral  Industry,  Vol.  I. 

Mineral  Resources,  U.  S.  A.,  various  volumes. 
Mining  Journal. 

Morin  and  Tresca,  Machines  a  Vapeur. 
Oesterreichische  Zeitschrift  fur  Berg-  und  Hiittenwesen. 
Peclet,  Traite  de  la  Chaleur. 
Percy's  Metallurgy,  Fuels. 
Philosophical  Magazine. 
Poly  tech  nisches  Centralblatt. 
Progressive  Age. 

Proceedings  :  Alabama  Industrial  and  Scientific  Society. 
44  American  Gaslight  Association. 


AUTHORITIES    CONSULTED.  xvii 

Proceedings:  American  Institute  Mining  Engineers. 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 
Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 
"  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 

Reports  :  British  Alkali  Commission. 

British  Association  of  Gas  Managers. 

Bureau  of  Mines,  Canada. 

Department  of  Mines,  New  South  Wales. 

Geological  Survey,  Ohio. 

Geological  Survey,  U.  S. 

South  Lancashire  and  Cheshire  Coal  Association  on  Boilers 

and  Smoke  Prevention,  1869. 
Revista  Minera. 
Revue  Scientifique  et  Industrielle. 

"      Universelle  des  Mines. 
Sanitary  Engineer. 
Scheerer,  Lehrbuch  der  Metallurgie. 

Scheurer-Kestner,  Pouvoir  Calorifique  des  Combustibles. 
Science. 

Ser,  Traite  de  Physique  Industrielle. 
Stahl  und  Eisen. 
Stevens  Indicator. 
Thomsen,  Thermo-chemie. 
Transactions  Newcastle  Chemical  Society. 
Ure's  Dictionary. 

United  States  Census  Bulletin,  1890. 
Williams,  C.  W.,  Fuel,  its  Character  and  Economy. 
Watt's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry. 

Witz,  Traite  theorique  et  pratique  des  moteurs  a  gaz. 
Wurtz,  Dictionnaire  de  Chimie. 
Zeitschrift  Physikalische  Chemie. 

"          des  Vereines  Deutscher  Ingenieure. 
Zeitung  Berg-  und  Hiittenwesen. 


CALORIFIC   POWER  OF  FUELS. 


CHAPTER    I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

FUELS. 

FUELS  are  those  substances  containing  carbon,  or  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  which,  are  utilized  for  the  heat  they  produce 
upon  union  with  oxygen.  The  products  of  this  union,  called 
combustion,  are  carbonic  acid  or  carbonic  acid  and  water. 
Many  fuels,  such  as  wood,  peat,  crude  petroleum,  etc.,  exist 
naturally;  others,  such  as  coke,  charcoal,  coal-gas,  etc.,  are 
formed  artificially. 

The  fuel  par  excellence  to-day  is  coal.  Improvements  in 
transportation  allow  deliveries  at  points  more  and  more 
remote  from  the  mines,  and  the  increasing  demand,  aided  by 
new  and  improved  machinery,  tends  to  lower  the  cost.  New 
locations  are  still  being  discovered,  and  the  old  ones  are  being 
worked  more  thoroughly  and  completely.  A  large  portion  of 
this  book  will  be  devoted  to  coal,  other  fuels  being  treated 
incidentally;  and  such  treatment  is  fitting,  since  it  is  the  study 
of  coal  to  which  the  energies  of  physicists  and  engineers  are 
still  principally  devoted  in  their  researches  on  the  calorific 
power  of  fuel. 

For  convenience  of  discussion  the  fuels  will  be  divided 
into  three  general  heads:  , 

Solid  fuels — coal,  lignite,  peat,  coke,  charcoal,  and  wood. 


2  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

Liquid  fuels — petroleum,  shale  oils,  vegetable  and  animal 
oils. 

Gaseous  fuels — coal  gas,  producer  gas,  water  gas,  mixed 
gas,  natural  gas. 

CALORIFIC   POWER   OR   HEAT   VALUE. 

The  quantity  of  heat  generated  by  the  combustion  of 
a  definite  quantity  of  fuel  in  oxygen  is  called  the  calorific 
power,  heat  value,  or  heat  of  combustion. 

The  expression  calorific  power  or  heat  value  has  a  wider 
signification  than  heat  of  combustion.  In  the  popular  sense 
the  former  terms  apply  to  the  measure  of  an  industrial  yield  as 
well  as  to  the  heat  given  off  by  the  fuel  during  its  complete 
combustion.  The  expression  heat  of  combustion ,  more  nearly 
correct  from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  is  applied,  on  the  con- 
trary, only  to  that  quantity  of  heat  generated  by  the  substance 
when  completely  burnt;  that  is  to  say,  when  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  are  completely  changed  to  carbonic  acid  and  water. 
The  unit  adopted  for  these  quantities  of  heat  is  the  Calorie 
and  the  British  Thermal  Unit. 

The  Calorie  is  the  quantity  of  heat  absorbed  by  the  unit  of 
weight  of  pure  water  when  its  temperature  is  increased  one 
degree  Centigrade.  This  unit  is  usually  one  gram  or  one 
kilogram.  When  it  represents  the  atomic  or  molecular 
weight,  it  is  called  the  atomic  or  molecular  calorie,  the  gram 
being  taken  as  the  atomic  unity. 

The  British  Thermal  Unit  (B.  T.  U.)  is  the  quantity  of 
heat  absorbed  by  one  unit  (usually  one  pound)  when  its  tem- 
perature is  increased  one  degree  Fahrenheit.  It  is  ^  of  a 
calorie. 

A  kilogram  in  burning  generates  n  calories  with  a  kilogram 
as  unit  and  the  Centigrade  scale;  a  pound  generates  n  calories 
with  a  pound  as  unit  and  the  Centigrade  scale  (W.  Kent's 
pound-calorie);  or,  whatever  the  weight  taken,  there  will  be 
generated  the  same  number  of  calories,  using  the  same  unit  of. 


INTROD  UCTOR  Y.  3 

weight  and  the  Centigrade  scale.  Hence  to  pass  from  the 
Centigrade  scale  to  the  Fahrenheit  scale  multiply  by  the 
factor  1.8,  that  being  the  ratio  of  the  two  scales. 

In  this  work  calories  referred  to  the  kilogram  (kilo- 
calories)  will  be  used,  and  the  calorie  will  be  the  quantity  of 
heat  necessary  fro  raise  the  temperature  of  that  amount  of  pure 
water  one  degree  Centigrade.  We  will  omit  consideration  of 
the  variations  in  specific  heat  of  water;  to  consider  these  it 
would  be  necessary  to  state  that  the  initial  temperature  was 
o°  C.  But,  as  remarked  by  Berthelot,  "  the  calorie  varies 
only  to  a  very  slight  degree  if  we  take  the  water  at  a  slightly 
increased  temperature — at  1 5°  or  20°,  for  example;  so  that  we 
are  accustomed  to  regard  as  constant  the  specific  heat  absorbed 
by  the  water  for  each  degree  comprised  in  this  interval  of 
temperature,  thus  simplifying  the  calculations."  We  may 
lessen  this  little  error  by  referring  the  calorie  to  a  litre  of 
water  instead  of  a  kilogram,  that  is,  by  measuring  the  water 
instead  of  weighing  it ;  the  weight  of  a  litre  of  water  diminish- 
ing from  its  maximum  density  at  4°  C.,  while  its  specific  heat 
gradually  increases.  The  error  of  calculation  is  thus  made 
less  than  the  error  of  experiment. 

HEAT   OF   COMBUSTION. 

When  the  fuel  contains  hydrogen,  its  heat  of  combustion 
may  be  expressed  in  two  ways.  Hydrogen  in  burning  pro- 
duces water,  and  this  water  may  be  either  condensed  or  in  the 
state  of  vapor.  The  same  number  does  not  apply  to  both 
cases,  since  the  vaporization  of  the  water  formed  consumes 
heat,  which  is  not  given  up  to  the  calorimetric  bath.  We 
usually  consider  the  heat  of  combustion,  the  result  of  the 
experiment  made  under  ordinary  conditions,  or  when  the 
water  is  in  the  liquid  state ;  this  is  the  general  acceptance  of 
the  term  heat  of  combustion.  Some  authors,  however,  prefer 
to  consider  the  water  as  vapor. 

It  is  easy,  however,   to  change  from  one  system  to  the 


4  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

other.  The  heat  of  combustion  of  one  kilogram  of  hydrogen 
being  34500  calories,*  and  the  water  formed  being  liquid  at 
o°  C.,  a  portion  of  the  34500  calories  is  used  to  vaporize  the 
water  in  the  case  where  it  is  gaseous  or  considered  as  such. 

Experiment  has  shown  that  the  heat  of  vaporization  of 
water  is  expressed  by  the  formula  of  Regnault, 

606.5  +  0.305*,     or 
1091.7  -f-  0.305^  —  32°)  for  Fahrenheit  degrees, 

in  which  /  represents  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  state 
of  vapor.  Now  one  kilogram  of  hydrogen  produces  nine 
kilograms  of  water.  To  keep  these  nine  kilograms  of  water 
in  vapor,  at  100°  C.  for  example,  there  will  be  needed,  by  the 
above  formula,  637  calories  per  kilogram  of  water,  or  nine 
times  as  much  per  kilogram  of  hydrogen,  which  is  5733 
calories.  These  5733  calories  reduce  to  5453  when  the  water 
is  considered  as  being  at  o°  C.  instead  of  at  100°  C.  Deduct- 
ing 5453  calories  from  34500  calories  representing  the  heat  of 
combustion  of  hydrogen,  the  water  formed  being  condensed, 
we  obtain  29047,  which  number  represents  the  heat  of  com- 
bustion of  hydrogen,  the  water  being  in  the  state  of  vapor 
at  oc.  We  will  call  it,  in  round  numbers,  29ioof  calories,  as 
is  done  by  several  writers. 

THERMOMETERS. 

Before  taking  up  the  study  of  calorimeters,  we  must  con- 
sider the  calorimetric  thermometer,  which  is  a  most  important 
part  of  the  apparatus  employed.  The  reading  of  the  ther- 
mometer and  the  corrections  are  quite  delicate  and  also  very 
important,  the  calculation  of  the  heat  of  combustion  depend- 
ing principally  on  their  accuracy. 

In  this  work  calorimetric  questions  relating  to  fuel  only 
will  be  considered;  hence  a  description  of  ordinary  ther- 

*  62100  B.  T.  U.  f  52380  B.  T.  U. 


IN  7  Yv' OD  UCTOR  Y.  5 

mometers  and  their  manufacture  will  not  be  needed.  They 
are  usually  bought  all  finished,  and  should  be  obtained  only 
from  reliable  dealers. 

Favre  and  Silbermann  employed  a  thermometer  of  their 
own  design,  divided  into  T^  degrees  and  graduated  from  32° 
to  o°  C.  Each  degree  occupied  about  0.3  inch.  By  means 
of  a  cathetometer  they  read  to  y^  of  a  degree.  Their  calori- 
metric  bath  of  2  litres  capacity  was  subjected  to  at  least  8° 
elevation  in  temperature,  and  the  quantity  of  substance 
necessary  to  use  at  times  exceeded  2  i  2 

grams.  To  lessen  this  amount  of  rise 
in  temperature  and  also  the  time  of 
combustion,  they  used  longer  thermo- 
meters, with  scales  reading  to  ^1^°  or  '" 
even  to  y^o0-  Scheurer-Kestner  used 
a  thermometer  divided  to  ^°  with  his 
Favre  and  Silbermann  calorimeter. 
Since  then  they  have  been  used  gener- 
ally.  Such  thermometers  are  difficult 
to  work  with,  and  require  care  in  ma- 
nipulation, and  often  a  series  of  ther-  1 1_]  2 

mometers   or  at  least   two  with  scales 

I  i  l  o 
in   sequence    are    employed.       If    the 

initial  temperature  of  a  calorimetric 
bath  is  found  a  little  above  the  highest 
graduation  on  the  first  thermometer, 

and  if  the  rise  in  temperature  of  the        FlG-  I-"~ METASTATIC 

THERMOMETER. 
bath  amounts  to  two  degrees,  we  must 

substitute  the  second  one  having  for  its  lowest  degree  the 
highest  of  the  first.  Besides  the  trouble  of  substitution,  it 
necessitates  a  correction  for  agreement  of  the  degrees  common 
to  the  two  instruments.  To  obviate  this  difficulty  the 
"  metastatic  "  thermometer  was  invented  by  Walferdin  and 
described  in  the  Comptes  Rendus  de  r Academic  des  Sciences^ 
1840,  p.  292,  and  1842,  p.  63. 


O  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

As  it  is  not  advisable  to  have  the  increase  of  temperature 
more  than  three  or  four  degrees,  and  as  this  increase  must  be 
measured  very  closely,  thermometers  are  used  in  which  the 
stem  is  so  drawn  out  and  divided  that  small  fractions  of  a 
degree  can  be  easily  read.  The  divisions  of  the  scale  should 
not  be  greater  than  J°,  and  much  finer  is  desirable. 

Many  physicists  use  special  thermometers  having  the 
reservoir  and  the  tube  near  the  zero  point  blown  large  enough 
to  hold  all  the  mercury  needed  from  o°  to  16°  or  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  divisions.  The  graduations,  engraved  on  the 
glass,  should  then  begin  and  the  tube  be  drawn  out  so  that 
they  may  be  sufficiently  fine.  Too  long  a  tube  (over  18 
inches)  is  liable  to  damage.  If  the  mercury  cylinder  be 
too  large  it  does  not  respond  quickly  enough  to  minute 
changes  in  temperature.  Readings  of  the  thermometer  are 
usually  made  with  a  cathetometer,  and  hence  -g-1^0  is  sufficiently 
small.  The  length  of  a  degree  should  be  at  least  one  inch. 

With  all  thermometers  it  is  essential  that  the  glass  of  the 
bulb  should  be  rather  thin,  or  the  thermometer  will  be  "  too 
slow."  The  slightest'  difference  in  temperature  must  be 
shown  immediately  by  a  movement  of  the  mercurial  column. 
To  test  for  sensibility,  read  the  height  of  the  column  and' then 
place  the  hand  on  the  bulb.  If  sufficiently  sensitive  the  mer- 
cury will  descend  quickly  from  the  expansion  of  the  glass  and 
afterwards  rise.  In  thermometers  divided  to  y-J^0  this  move- 
ment should  be  immediate,  and  over  several  hundredths. 

In  ordinary  calorimetric  experiments  the  correction  due  to 
length  of  the  mercury  column  flowing  out  of  the  bulb  may 
be  neglected  'for  several  reasons;  the  experiments  should  be 
made  in  a  room  where  the  temperature  is  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  the  calorimetric  bath,  such  correction  would  be  of 
very  little  consequence  for  a  slight  change  of  temperature, 
and  the  experimenter  should  plunge  the  thermometer  into  the 
bath  as  deep  as  is  necessary  to  take  the  reading  at  the  level 
of  the  eye. 


CHAPTER    II. 
METHODS   OF   DETERMINING  HEAT   OF   COMBUSTION. 

THERE  are  two  methods  for  determining  tne  heat  of  com- 
bustion of  substances  —  one  by  calculation  based  on  the 
chemical  composition,  and  the  other  by  actual  combustion  in 
a  calorimeter.  The  first  method  may  be  considered  under 
two  heads:  that  in  which  the  units  are  calculated  directly  from 
the  composition,  and  that  in  which  they  are  calculated  from 
the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed  during  combustion  in  a 
crucible. 

CALCULATION   FROM    CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION. 

Dulong  stated  that  the  heat  generated  by  a  fuel  during 
combustion  was  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  possible  heats  gener- 
ated by  its  component  elements,^  less  that  portion  of  the  hy- 
drogen which  might  form  water  with  the  oxygen  of  the  fuel. 

His  formula  was 


*  =    8o8oC  +  34500   H  -       , 
or  expressed  in  B.  T.  U.'s, 

x  =  I45OOC  +  62100  ^H  —  —  J, 

in  which 

x  =  the  heat  of  combustion  sought  ; 
8080  =  the  heat  of  combustion  of  carbon  in  calories  ; 
14500  =    "      "     "  "  "        "      ."  B.  T.  U.  ; 

34500  =    "       "      "  "  "  hydrogen  in  calories  ; 

62100=    "       "     "  "  "          "  "  B.  T.  U.; 

7 


8  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

H  —  -£-  =  the  quantity  of  hydrogen  less  that  supposed  to  form 
water  with  the  oxygen. 

Other  authors  and  experimenters  have  tried  to  interpret 
their  results  by  a  general  formula  with  varying  success. 
Many  of  them  by  working  on  a  certain  number  of  coals  from 
a  certain  location  work  out  a  formula  which  applies  to  that 
set  of  coals,  but  not  as  well  to  another  set.  A  few  of  them 
will  be  given.  They  all  resemble  Dulong's  and  are  usually 
only  modifications  of  his  original  one. 

The  Verein  Deutscher  Ingenieure  adopted  the  following: 

/          O\ 
x  =  SiooC  +  29000  (  H  —  —  j  +  25008  —  6oo£, 

in  which  allowance  is  made  for  the  heat  of  combustion  of 
sulphur  and  the  heat  of  the  hygroscopic  water.  All  the 
coefficients  are  round  numbers  and  that  for  hydrogen,  29000, 
is  the  one  in  which  the  water  is  supposed  to  be  as  aqueous 
vapor,  all  the  water  being  considered  as  passing  off  in  that 
state.  None  of  the  other  formulae  uses  this  coefficient. 
It  gives  rather  low  results.  The  question  as  to  the  advis- 
ability of  reckoning  the  heat  due  to  sulphur  is  a  debatable 
one.  In  no  case  does  it  amount  to  more  than  a  verv  small 
per  cent  and  can  have  but  little  effect  on  the  total. 
Balling  gives  as  formula 


x  =  8o8oC  +  34462  H  -        -  6$2(£  +  9H) 

to  represent  the  actual  occurrences  in  a  steam-boiler  fire  work- 
ing under  a  pressure  of  steam  corresponding  to  300°  F. 

Schwackhoefer  made  the  following  modification  to  allow 
for  the  correction  due  to  hygroscopic  water: 

x  =  8o8oC  +  34500  (H  -  J  -  637^. 


METHODS   OF  DETERMINING  HEAT   OF  COMBUSTION.      9 

Mahler  formulated  one  based  on  the  results  of  calorimetric 
determination  of  the  heat  of  combustion  of  44  different  kinds 
of  fuel.  It  is 

81400  +  345QQH  -  3000(0+  N) 
100  ~; 

or  simplified, 

x  =  ii  I.4C  +  375 H  —  3000; 
or  in  B.  T.  U.'s, 

x  =  200.  sC  +  675  H  —  5400. 

With  the  coals  he  examined  he  found  a  very  close  agree- 
ment between  the  results  calculated  by  this  formula  and 
those  observed.  A  similar  but  not  equally  close  concordance 
was  found  using  the  Dulong  formula.  With  wood  and  lig. 
nites  the  difference  amounted  to  2  per  cent.  His  formula 
applies  also  to  other  substances  whose  constituents  are  accu- 
rately known.  Cellulose,  the  heat  of  combustion  of  which 
according  to  Berthelot  is  4200  calories,  by  Mahler's  formula 
is  4264. 

In  summing  up  he  says:  "  From  a  scientific  point  of 
view,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  on  the  subject, 
we  cannot  give  a  general  formula  depending  strictly  on  the 
chemical  composition  which  will  give  the  calorific  power  of 
combustibles,  substances  so  complex  and  varied." 

Lord  and  Haas  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Mining  Engineers,  Feb.  1897,  state  that  in  a  series  of 
forty  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  coals  they  found  differences 
varying  from  -j-  2.0  to  —  1.8  per  cent  between  the  calculated 
and  the  observed  results,  and  an  average  difference  of  —  o.  12 
per  cent. 

In  1896  Bunte  published  some  analyses  and  calorimetric 
tests  of  gas-cokes,  showing  a  difference  of  from  -j-  0.04  to 
—  1.2  per  cent. 


IO  CALORIfIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

Three  elements  enter  into  these  cases,  the  analysis,  ^he 
calculation,  and  the  combustion;  all  may  be  erroneous.  As 
the  matter  stands  now  the  weight  of  error  seems  to  be  on  the 
side  of  the  analysis,  as  our  methods  of  analysis,  especially  in 
water  determinations,  are  not  entirely  satisfactory;  yet  it  must 
be  confessed  that  some  of  the  most  recent  analyses  give  a 
basis  from  which  very  close  agreement  can  be  calculated. 
With  such  fuels  as  coke,  charcoal,  or  anthracite,  having  but 
little  volatile  matter,  the  results  agree  quite  well,  but  with  the 
•bituminous  coals,  asphalts,  mineral  oils,  etc.,  which  are  so 
very  complex,  the  differences  are  greater.*  In  these  the 
actual  proximate  chemical  constitution  seems  to  make  a  differ- 
ence. It  may  be  safely  stated,  however,  that  for  ordinary 
industrial  uses,  in  absence  of  the  possibility  of  a  calorimetric 
test,  and  with  coals  having  under  20  per  cent  of  volatile 
matter,  a  fairly  accurate  approximation  may  be  arrived  at  by 
calculation. 

The  great  inducement  that  formerly  existed  in  favor  of 
•calculated  results  exists  no  longer.  I  refer  to  the  difficulty 
of  making  a  calorimetric  test.  These  can  be  made  now  by 
means  of  the  modern  apparatus,  so  simple  and  almost  self- 
regulating  that  the  time  consumed  is  but  a  small  fraction  of 
that  needed  for  an  analysis,  and  the  labor  and  care,  hardly 
anything  in  comparison. 

If  possible,  by  all  means  have  a  calorimetric  test.  If  not 
possible,  use  the  best  analysis  available. 

CALCULATION   FROM    QUANTITY   OF   OXYGEN    USED. 

This  is  the  litharge  reduction  test.  It  depends  on 
Welter's  formula,  which  is  based  on  the  hypothesis  that  the 
"heat  of  combustion  is  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
consumed: 

N  =  mP, 

*  Mahler's  limit  for  Dulong's  formula  is  O  -f  N  >  15. 


METHODS   OF  DETERMINING   HEAT   OF  COMBUSTION.    II 

in  which  N  is  the  heat  of  combustion  sought,  m  is  the  coeffi- 
cient previously  determined,  and  P  is  the  weight  of  oxygen 
necessary  for  the  combustion  of  one  kilogram  of  the  substance. 
Giving  P  the  value  resulting  from  the  use  of  the  equiva- 
lents —  16  for  oxygen  to  burn  6  of  carbon,  and  8  for  oxygen 
to  burn  I  of  hydrogen  —  we  have 


and  the  general  formula  becomes 

N  =  Sm  (-  +  H)  =  26880  (-  +  H).* 

To  use  this  method  the  combustible  is  mixed  with  an 
•excess  of  litharge  and  heated  in  a  crucible.  The  button  of 
lead  formed  shows  the  amount  of  oxygen  consumed,  and  from 
this  is  deduced  the  heat  by  means  of  the  formula.  The  heat 
should  be  increased  very  slowly.  Mitchell  substituted  white 
lead  for  litharge  and  claimed  to  obtain  uniform  results. 

This  formula  was  recommended  by  Berthier,  and  has  been 
used  since  by  a  few  others.  It  is  faulty,  as  was  shown  by 
•some  of  Berthier's  own  determinations  in  which  contradictory 
results  were  obtained.  Dr.  Ure  showed  that  no  uniform  re- 
sults could  be  obtained  using  the  same  materials.  Scheurer- 
Kestner  in  1892  showed  that  the  formula  not  only  gave  erro- 
neous results,  but  actually  reversed  the  relation  of  combus- 
tibles. In  one  case  cited  the  heats  actually  obtained  by  a 
calorimeter  were  8813  and  8750,  while  by  the  litharge  test 
they  were  7547  and  7977.  The  results  were  not  only  low, 
but  reversed  the  ratio. 

This  method  is  allowable  only  in  cases  where  the  crudest 
approximations  are  desired  and  where  no  analyses  or  calori- 
metric  tests  can  possibly  be  made. 

*  Value  given  by  M.  Ser. 


CHAPTER    III. 
CALORIMETRY. 

CALORIMETERS  for  rapid  combustion  are  invariably  com- 
posed of  a  combustion-chamber  and  a  calorimetric  bath, 
usually  a  cylinder,  surrounding  it  and  containing  a  known 
quantity  of  water,  the  elevation  in  temperature  of  which  is 
measured.  The  combustion  is  made  in  oxygen,  pure  or 
diluted. 

Combustion-chambers  are  either  under  a  constant  pressure, 
as  in  the  calorimeters  of  Rumford,  Favre  and  Silbermann, 
etc. ;  or  with  a  constant  volume,  as  in  the  calorimeters  of 
Andrews,  Berthelot,  etc.  With  solids  the  difference  of  results 
obtained  under  constant  volume  and  constant  pressure  is  so 
small  that  we  shall  not  consider  it.  With  gases,  however,  it 
is  different,  and  we  will  state  under  which  conditions  the 
results  have  been  obtained. 

The  first  calorimetric  experiments  date  from  Lavoisier  and 
Laplace.  In  1814  Count  Rumford  replaced  the  ice  calorim- 
eter of  Lavoisier  by  an  apparatus  in  which  the  heat  devel- 
oped during  the  combustion  was  absorbed  by  water.  It  was 
some  time  after,  1858,  that  Favre  and  Silbermann  discovered 
the  causes  of  the  great  errors  of  their  predecessors,  and  pub- 
lished methods  for  correcting  some  while  avoiding  others. 
We  owe  to  them,  above  all,  the  observation  that,  even  when 
supplied  with  pure  oxygen,  combustion  may  be  only  partial, 
on  account  of  the  formation  of  combustible  gases.  They 
determined  that  this  occurs  generally,  and  gave  a  method  of 
estimating  the  unburnt  gases,  so  as  to  make  allowances  in  the 
calculation. 

12 


CALORIMETRY.  13 

Carbon,  which,  before  their  time,  had  given  only  7624 
-calories  to  Laplace,  7386  to  Clement-Desormes,  7915  to  Des- 
pretz,  7295  to  Dulong,  and  7678  to  Andrews,  yielded  to  F. 
&  S.  8081  after  correction  for  carbonic  oxide  in  the  waste 
gases.  This  number  has  since  been  increased  to  8140  by  the 
latest  determinations  of  Berthelot.  Berthelot  and  Vielle  have 
shown  that  by  using  oxygen  under  pressure  complete  com- 
bustion can  be  attained. 

INSTALLATION  OF  APPARATUS. 

The  apparatus  should  be  placed  in  a  room  free  from 
sudden  changes  in  temperature  and  consequently  protected 
from  direct  sunlight.  If  it  is  not  entirely  protected  from 
solar  radiation,  the  apparatus  may  be  set  up  on  the  north 
side  and  shaded  from  the  direct  midday  sun  by  a  screen. 

The  calorimeter  cylinder  with  its  accessories,  as  well  as  the 
distilled  water  used,  should  remain  in  the  room  long  enough 
to  acquire  its  proper  temperature.  The  cylinder  should  be 
protected  as  much  as  possible  from  radiation  by  envelopes 
which  vary  according  to  circumstances.  Favre  and  Silber- 
mann  used  a  cylinder  with  a  double  wall.  The  external  one 
was  filled  with  water,  and  between  this  one  and  the  cylinder 
proper  swan's  down  was  packed.  The  upper  part  of  the 
cylinder  also  had  a  layer  of  thick  paper  covered  with  down 
on  the  under  side. 

Berthelot  states  that  the  down  is  more  troublesome  than 
useful,  and  that  it  may  be  omitted  with  advantage.  The  space 
between  the  cylinder  and  its  envelope  forms  a  layer  of  air 
which  is  an  excellent  non-conductor.  In  modern  instruments 
the  down  is  replaced  by  a  thick  layer  of  felt.  Berthelot  even 
omits  this  covering,  stating  that  the  great  cause  of  loss  of 
heat  was  not  from  radiation,  but  due  to  evaporation  produced 
by  the  agitation  of  the  water  in  contact  with  the  air.  He 
surrounds  his  cylinder  with  a  layer  of  air  inside  of  the 
envelope  of  water,  and  outside  of  all  a  layer  of  felt  O.8  inch 
thick.  By  this  means  external  influence  is  much  reduced. 


14  •  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

EVALUATION    OF   THE    CALORIMETER    IN    WATER. 

Before  using  a  calorimeter  its  equivalent  in  water  must  be 
determined;  that  is,  we  must  calculate  to  what  quantity  of 
water  it  corresponds  in  terms  of  specific  heat.  This  is  to> 
be  added  to  the  weight  of  water  employed  and  includes  the 
combustion-chamber,  cylinder,  and  the  immersed  pieces, 
thermometer,  supports,  etc. 

Below  is  given  an  example  showing  the  calculation  of  the 
value  in  water  of  a  Favre  and  Silbermann's  calorimeter: 

Copper,  1145.651  grams  at  0.09516  specific  heat =  109.008  grams. 

Platinum,  22.810       "        "  0.0324         "  "    =      0.706      " 


Value  in  water  of  the  chamber  and  accessories  =  109.714 
Thermometer,  weight  of  glass  immersed,  12  grams  at  o.  198  =  2.400 
Mercury,  63  "  "0.332=  2.070 


Total  equivalent  of  water =  114.184      " 

which  added  to  the  2  kilograms  of  water  in  the  bath  makes  a 
total  of  2114.184  grams  of  water. 

The  calorimetric  weight  for  the  Berthelot  bomb  at  the 
College  of  France  in  1888  was  398.7  grams  for  bomb  and 
accessories. 

The  water  value  of  the  calorimeter  used  by  Lord  and  Haas 
at  the  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  O.,  was  determined 
as  465  grams.  Mahler's  apparatus  had  a  water  equivalent 
of  481  grams.  Still,  it  is  better  to  determine  this  equivalent 
by  actual  experiment,  as  we  are  not  sure  of  the  specific  heat 
of  the  metal  of  the  bomb,  which  might,  however,  be  deter- 
mined by  a  sample  taken  from  the  original  block  of  which  it 
was  made. 

Several  methods  may  be  employed  for  this. 

When  we  use  the  calorimetric  bomb,  we  burn  in  the  obus, 
using  2000  grams  of  water,  a  known  quantity  of  a  substance 
of  fixed  composition,  and  of  which  the  heat  of  combustion 
is  known,  as  sugar,  or  naphthalin.  We  then  use  less  water 
and  burn  a  smaller  quantity  of  the  substance.  If  I  gram  of 
substance  was  taken  the  first  time,  we  may  take  O.8  gram  with 
1800  grams  of  water  the  second  time.  We  then  have  two 


CA  L  ORIME  7  'A'  Y.  I  £ 

equations,  trom  which  we  eliminate  the  heat  of  combustion  of 
the  substance  and  deduce  thence  the  value  in  water  of  the 
cylinder,  etc. 

This  method,  suggested  by  Berthelot,  may  be  replaced  by 
the  following,  to  which  he  gives  the  preference: 

Pour  into  the  calorimeter  a  certain  quantity  of  warm 
water,  at  60°  C.  for  instance.  This  water  is  previously  con- 
tained in  a  bottle,  and  the  temperature  is  measured  by  a 
thermometer  placed  inside.  As  control,  operate  first  without 
the  bomb  in  the  cylinder  and  afterwards  with  it  in  place. 

One  test  of  this  kind  gave  Berthelot  a  value  of  354  calories 
for  the  bomb.  The  value  deduced  by  calculation  from  specific 
heat  was  355.4.  Below  is  the  detailed  calculation  giving  the 
separate  parts  of  the  bomb. 


Names  of  the  Different  Parts. 

Soft  Steel. 

Platinum. 

Brass. 

Weight 
in 
Grams. 

Value  in 
Water. 

Weight 
in 
Grams. 

Value  in 
Water. 

Weight 
in 
Grams. 

Value  in 
Water. 

1709.7 
221.2 
II.7 

187.61 
24.28 

1.28 

728.8 
528.8 

23.63 
I7-I5 

2O.  O 
3-97 

108.9 

1.86 
0.37 

10.13 

Cover  

Cone-screw    and    socket 

Movable  accessoriesserv- 
ing  for  suspension  and 

33-0 

1.07 

802.7 

88.08 

Movable  foot  of  bomb.  .  . 

Totals     .... 

2745-3 

301.24 

I2QO.6 

41.85 

132.9 

12.36 

RECAPITULATION. 


Metals  Used. 

Weight  in 
Grams. 

Calculated 
Value  in  Water. 

Steel  .. 

-2OI    2J. 

Platinum     .    .    .    . 

Af    8C 

Brass  (calorimeter 

and  agitator  omitted)     • 

TOO     Q 

\Veight  of  bomb.  • 

4168  8 

Value  in  water  by 

direct  test  

'4^4.  7 

1 6  CA LOR 2 PIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 


CORRECTIONS    FOR    THE    READINGS. 

The  corrections  to  be  applied  to  thermometric  readings, 
besides  those  due  to  the  thermometer  itself,  are  of  various 
kinds,  and  naturally  vary  with  the  kind  of  calorimeter  used. 
Some,  however,  are  common  to  all. 

The  correction  relative  to  heating  and  cooling  concerns  all 
calorimeters.  Favre  and  Silbermann  made  this  correction  with 
a  coefficient  previously  determined,  once  for  all,  by  a  series 
of  experiments.  For  example,  the  coefficient  that  they  found 
for  their  calorimeter  (±0.0020225)  represents  the  influence 
of  the  external  temperature  through  the  envelopes  and  pack- 
ings for  one  minute  and  one  degree. 

Instead  of  a  coefficient  of  correction  thus  determined, 
use  preferably  a  system  of  correction  devised  by  Regnault  and 
Pfaundler.  This  system  is  superior  to  the  preceding,  as  it 
allows  consideration  of  all  external  conditions  at  the  time  of 
the  experiment.  It  is  evident,  for  example,  that  the  evapora- 
tion of  a  liquid  may  vary  in  such  proportions  that  a  fixed 
coefficient  will  not  always  represent  it. 

The  system  of  Regnault  and  Pfaundler  does  not  need 
previous  experiments  nor  a  determined  coefficient.  It  rests 
on  observation  of  the  thermometer  immersed  in  the  bath  a 
Tew  minutes  before  and  after  the  experiment,  or  at  the  times 
when  external  influence  is  at  its  minimum  or  maximum. 
Knowing  the  value  of  these  two  kinds  of  influence,  it  is 
easy  to  calculate  it  for  the  whole  duration  of  the  test. 

It  is  well  to  continue  the  observations  before  combustion 
for  some  five  minutes.  These  five  minutes  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  at  least  ten  minutes'  immersion  of  the  combustion 
chamber  with  agitator,  so  as  to  establish  equilibrium  of  tem- 
perature between  the  cylinder  and  the  water. 

Suppose  the  initial  correction  corresponding  to  the  first 
period  to  be  zero — which  is  rare,  it  is  true,  but  simplifies  the 


RSITT  I 


CA  L  ORIME  TRY.  1 7 

demonstration — and  that  the  observations  have  given  the  fol- 
lowing data: 

Initial  temperature  of  bath 18.460° 

After  i  minute 19.700 

"      2        " 20.540 

"      3        "      20.670 

"     4       "      20.680 

"     5        "      20.676 

11     6       "      20.665 

"     7       "      20.655 

"     8        "      20.640 

11     9       "      20.630 

'    10       "     20.620 

The  combustion  once  commenced  is  continued  till  after 
the  fourth  minute  and  ends  between  the  fourth  and  fifth 
minutes,  but  the  equilibrium  of  temperature  between  the  bath 
and  the  combustion-chamber  is  not  established  until  the 
eighth  minute,  the  time  when  the  variation  due  to  difference 
between  them  has  become  regular  (0.010°  per  minute). 

A  table  of  corrections  is  formed  as  follows: 

18.460° 
1st  minute. ...    19.700        Mean  19.080°     Difference  0.620° 

2d        "       20.540  20.120  i. 660 

3d        "       ...,    20.670  20.605  2.145 

4th      "        ....    20.680  20.675  2.215 

5th      "       ....    20.676  20.678  2.218 

6th      "       20.665 

7th      "       ,  ...    20.655 

8th      "       ....    20.640 

9th      "'      ....    20.630 

joth      "  ,    20.620 


1 8  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

The  total  elevation  of  temperature  is 

20.676  —  18.460  =  2.216°, 

and  the  correction  is 

20.676  —  20.620  ==  0.056°  for  five  minutes, 
or  0.011°  for  one  minute. 

Then 

2.2l6  :  O.OII  =  0.620  :  0.0031 
2.216  :  o.on  =  i. 660  :  0.0083 
2.216  :  o.on  =  2.145  :  0.0107 
2.216  :  o.on  =  2.215  :  o.ono 
2.216  :  o.on  =  2.218  :  o.ono 


Total 0.0441 

There  is  then  0.0441°  to  be  added  to  the  difference,  2.2 16°, 
increasing  it  to  2.260°,  which  is  the  corrected  difference  of  the 
bath  temperature,  from  which  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the 
substance  burnt  in  the  calorimeter  is  calculated. 

Regnault  and  Pfaundler's  formula  is 

Atn  —  Ato  +  K(tn  —  to) ; 
in  which 

*Atn  =  ascertained  variation  of  temperature  from  the  heat- 
ing and  cooling  of  the  calorimeter  for  one 
minute; 

Ato  =  variation  at  the  beginning; 

tn  _  to  =  loss  or  gain  during  the  total  time  of  the  test; 
n  =  number  of  minutes  of  test. 

Using  the  above  numbers, 

O.OII 


CA  L  ORIME  TRY.  19 

It  will  suffice,  then,  to  find  the  total  loss  or  gain  to  take 
the  sum  of  all  the  gains  or  losses  calculated  by  means  of  the 
coefficient  K  during  the  whole  time  of  the  experiment. 

Thus, 

0.620  X  0.00496  =  0.0031°, 

i. 660  X  0.00496  =  0.0083°, 
and  so  on. 

For  the  full  and  exact  method  of  correction  devised  by 
Pfaundler,  see  vol.  ix.,  p.  113  et  seq.  of  the  Annalen  der  Chemie 
und  Physik. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
CALORIMETERS  WITH  CONSTANT  PRESSURE. 

THE  first  calorimeters  were  of  constant  pressure;  that  is, 
the  combustion  was  carried  on  at  the  atmospheric  pressure  or 
very  near  it,  and  did  not  vary  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  experiment.  Hence  the  modifications  in  the  volume 
of  the  gases  before  and  after  combustion  exercised  no  influ- 
ence on  the  observed  results. 

Rumford,  in  1814,  was  the  first  who  tried  to  correct 
external  influences.  He  employed  a  practical  method  which 
has  often  been  used  since,  and  consists  in  giving  the  calo- 
rimeter bath  a  temperature  in  the  beginning  of  the  test  less 
than  that  of  the  room,  and  allowing  it  at  the  close  to  attain 
a  temperature  in  the  same  proportion  above  that  of  the  room. 
His  calorimetric  apparatus  was  composed  of  a  copper  boiler 
of  several  litres  capacity,  heated  by  an  interior  tube  through 
which  passed  the  gaseous  products  of  the  combustion.  The 
combustible  was  burnt  in  a  little  burner  placed  under  the 
boiler,  and  the  air  used  circulated  around  the  heater  before 
passing  to  the  burner,  thus  preventing  any  loss  of  caloric  by 
radiation. 

Dulong  in  1838  used  oxygen,  and  obtained  much  superior 
results.  His  calorimeter  consisted  of  a  rectangular  copper 
box,  25  centimetres  (about  10  inches)  deep,  7.5  centimetres 
(2.9  inches)  wide,  and  10  centimetres  (3.9  inches)  long.  It 
was  closed  at  the  upper  part  by  a  cover  with  a  mercury  seal. 

20 


FAVRE  AND    SILBERMANN' S   CALORIMETER.  21 

The  oxygen  passed  into  the  calorimeter  by  a  copper  tube 
opening  at  one  of  the  sides  of  the  box  near  the  bottom. 
The  gases  of  combustion  were  drawn  into  a  gas-holder.  The 
apparatus  was  enclosed  in  another  likewise  rectangular,  in 
which  was  put  1 1  litres  (Q§  quarts)  of  water.  This  was  the 
calorimetric  cylinder.  The  water  was  kept  in  motion  by  an 
agitator. 

The  unit  chosen  by  Dulong  was  one  gram  of  water  whose 
temperature  was  raised  one  degree.  He  corrected  the  tem- 
perature observed,  same  as  Rumford,  but  he  also  noticed 
that  this  correction  was  correct  only  when  the  first  period 
was  equal  to  the  second.  The  results  obtained  by  Dulong  in 
1838  were  not  published  till  after  his  death,  in  1843.  F°r 
hydrogen  and  carbonic  oxide  they  are  but  slightly  different 
from  the  most  modern  determinations. 

CALORIMETER   OF   FAVRE    AND    SILBERMANN. 

In  1852  Favre  and  Silbermann  published  their  first 
researches  on  the  quantities  of  heat  generated  by  chemical 
action  and  described  their  calorimeter. 

All  rapid-combustion  calorimeters  and  all  with  constant 
pressure  intended  for  solid  bodies  are  copied  more  or  less  after 
that  of  Favre  and  Silbermann.  The  principle  and  mode  of 
execution  in  their  general  lines  are  the  same;  the  form  in  some 
details  or  the  material  employed  for  the  combustion-chamber 
has  been  modified  more  or  less;  but  the  general  apparatus 
and  accessories,  as  well  as  the  method,  have  remained  as 
F.  &  S.  left  them.  We  will  describe,  then,  this  calorimeter 
in  its  details,  and  outline  the  modifications  made  by  other 
experimenters. 

The  calorimeter  called  Favre  and  Silbermann's  is  composed 
of  three  concentric  copper  cylinders  (Fig.  2,  B,  C,  Z>). 
Cylinder  B  is  the  calorimeter  cylinder;  it  is  silver-plated  and 
polished  on  the  inner  surface  so  as  to  lessen  its  emitting 
power;  its  capacity  is  a  little  over  2  litres  (3!  pints),  being  20 


22 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


centimetres  (about  8  inches)  high  and  12  centimetres  (4J 
inches)  in  diameter.  In  the  middle  is  placed  the  combustion- 
chamber  A  (Figs.  2  and  3). 


FIG.  2.  FIG.  3. 

FAVRE  AND  SILBERMANN  CALORIMETER. 

The  combustion-chamber  is  of  burnished  gilt  copper,  and 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  It  is  a  slightly  conical  vessel,  the  large 
opening  in  which  receives  a  stopper  from  which  is  suspended 
the  burner  made  of  a  material  suitable  to  that  of  the  sub- 
stance operated  on.  The  stopper  itself  carries  two  tubes,  m 
and  n,  the  first  being  an  observation  tube  for  the  combustion, 
and  is  surmounted  by  a  mirror  M,  which  allows  examination 
during  the  burning.  The  mirror  receives  light  by  the  tube 
m,  which  is  closed  by  an  athermanous  system  of  quartz, 
alum,  and  glass.  The  other  tube,  «,  carries  the  jet  for  the 
oxygen.  Tube  b  is  closed,  or  removed  during  the  test  with 
coal,  as  it  is  of  no  use  then.  Tube  c  serves  as  the  exit  for  the 
waste  gases  of  the  combustion,  which  pass  through  the  coil  cc 
(Fig.  2)  before  reaching  the  analytical  apparatus.  This  coil 


FAVRE  AND    SJLBERMANN'S   CALORIMETER 


is  sufficient  to  cool  the  gas  to  the  temperature  of  the  bath. 
Experimenters  should  solder  the  oxygen-jet  to  the  stopper 
so  as  to  diminish  the  number  of  openings.  It  is  also  advan- 
tageous to  solder  the  coil  to  the  cover. 

Certain  fuels  with  very  smoky  flames  require  the  addition  of 
oxygen  very  near  their  surfaces.  Scheurer- 
Kestner  and  Meunier-Dollfus  employed  the 
following  arrangement  (Fig.  4),  a  being  the 
platinum  capsule;  cc' ,  the  platinum  tube, 
which  at  the  part  c  fits  tight  in  the  mouth 
of  the  oxygen-jet;  b,  b,  b,  platinum  suspen- 
sion-rods; d,  fuel. 

It  is  impossible  to  prevent  the  genera- 
tion of  more  or  less  hydrocarbons  and  car- 
bonic oxide.  The  weight  of  the  hydrogen 
and  carbon  is  determined  by  causing  the 
gaseous  products  of  combustion  to  pass 
through  an  organic  analysis  tube,  after  re- 
moving the  water  and  carbonic  acid.  For 
this  purpose  the  exit-tube  c  (Fig.  3)  is  con- 
nected by  a  caoutchouc  tube  with  a  Liebig  apparatus,  fol- 
lowed by  a  U-tube  of  soda-lime. 

The  gas-current  being  rather  rapid,  an  absorption  appa- 
ratus must  be  used,  large  and  powerful  enough  to  completely 
free  the  gas  from  the  carbonic  acid  and  water  before  it  reaches 
the  red-hot  copper  oxide.  This  is  done  by  passing  the  gases 
through  another  U-tube  smaller  than  the  preceding,  and  whose 
weight  should  vary  only  a  few  milligrams.  The  gases  thus 
freed  pass  to  the  tube  of  hot  copper  oxide,  where  the  com- 
bustible gases  are  burnt  to  water  and  carbonic  acid,  which  are 
collected  and  weighed  as  usual. 

Scheurer-Kestner  and  Meunier-Dollfus  employed  a  plati- 
num combustion-tube,  and  prefer  soda-lime  as  absorbent  for 
the  water  after  the  conclusive  experiments  by  Mulder.* 

*Zeitschrift  fiir  analytische  Chemie,  I.  4. 


24  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

The  coal  for  the  experiment  must  be  in  pieces;  if  in? 
powder,  the  combustion  is  more  difficult,  unburnt  gases 
escaping  in  considerable  quantities,  so  that  it  is  rare  to  obtain 
a  complete  combustion,  and  the  cinders  almost  invariably 
contain  small  quantities  of  coke.  To  determine  these,  the 
capsule  and  tube  are  withdrawn  from  the  combustion-cham- 
ber, dried,  and  weighed.  The  coke  and  the  little  soot  on  the 
sides  of  the  capsule  are  burnt  off  by  calcination  in  the  air  and 
a  new  weighing  made,  giving  the  weight  of  the  carbon  and 
cinder — elements  which  must  be  considered  in  the  corrections. 
From  half  a  gram  to  a  gram  of  coal  may  be  used. 

When  the  combustion-chamber  containing  the  weighed 
substance  is  put  into  the  calorimeter  all  the  parts  of  the 
apparatus  are  connected  by  caoutchouc  joints  and  tested. 
A  slow  current  of  oxygen*  from  a  gas-holder  is  passed 
through  the  apparatus.  The  combustible  is  ignited  by  a  few 
milligrams  of  burning  charcoal,  the  joint  in  the  tube  being 
broken  for  the  moment,  and  immediately  reconnected  without 
stopping  the  -flow  of  oxygen.  The  little  glass  M  allows  inspec- 
tion of  the  combustion,  the  intensity  of  which  can  be  regulated 
by  the  flow  of  oxygen  from  the  gas-holder.  The  temperature 
shown  by  the  thermometer  is  recorded  each  minute  to  obtain 
the  data  necessary  for  the  correction  spoken  of  above  (pages 
1 6  et  seq.). 

To  calculate  the  heat-units  developed  by  the  combustion 
the  following  elements  are  needed : 

1.  Weight  of  the  combustible  used; 

2.  Weight  of  the  carbon  remaining  in  the  cinders  unburnt 
or  as  black; 

3.  Weight  of  the  cinders; 

4.  Weight  of  hydrogen  escaped  unburnt; 

*To  prepare  the  oxygen  a  copper  flask  of  one  litre  capacity  is  used,  in 
•which  is  placed  some  chlorate  of  potash,  which  is  then  heated  by  a  gas 
flame.  The  gaseous  current  is  very  regular,  except  towards  the  end,  when 
it  may  become  tumultuous.  The  addition  of  a  small  percentage  of  black 
oxide  of  manganese  promotes  the  regularity  of  the  gas  generation. 


FAVRE   AND    SILBERMANN'S    CALORIMETER.  2$ 

5.  Weight    of    carbon    escaped    unburnt   in    the    gaseous 
products; 

6.  Elevation  of  temperature  of  calorimeter  bath; 

7.  Correction  for  heating  and  cooling  caused  by  external 
influences  on  the  calorimeter  cylinder.  ; 

The  combustion  of  the  coal  by  this  means  is  rarely  com- 
plete; there  remain  variable  quantities  of  coke  mixed  with 
the  cinders  formed.  An  uncertainty  attends  the  calorimetric 
value  according  as  the  combustion  was  slow  or  rapid,  since 
this  small  quantity  of  coke  contains  more  or  less  hydrocarbons. 
These  differences,  however,  apply  within  very  close  limits,  so 
that  no  fear  need  be  entertained  of  large  errors  therefrom. 
When  a  coal,  in  pieces,  has  been  burnt,  there  remains  in  the 
capsule  only  a  few  milligrams  of  coke  or  unburnt  carbon. 
From  this  we  calculate  the  calorimetric  value,  using  8080  as 
coefficient  (heat  of  combustion  of  charcoal  according  to  Favre 
and  Silbermann);  and  in  using  that  coefficient  the  hydrogen 
which  may  exist  in  the  coke  is  naturally  neglected,  but  this 
cannot  be  prevented.  The  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  com-1 
bustible  gases  which  escaped  combustion  are  transformed  into 
water  and  carbonic  acid,  and  weighed  as  such.  The  hydrogen 
is  calculated  as  in  the  free  state  (coefficient  34500)  and  the 
carbon  as  carbonic  oxide  (coefficient  2435). 

It  is  evident  that  these  are  only  approximations,  since  the 
hydrogen  is  not  disengaged  in  a  free  state,  but  as  a  hydro- 
carbon; and  its  coefficient  (34500)  should  be  diminished  by  the 
heat  of  formation  of  this  compound,  or,  in  other  words,  by  the 
heat  of  combustion  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  This  correction, 
however,  is  not  possible;  for  neither  the  composition  nor  state 
of  molecular  condensation  of  such  hydrocarbon  is  known. 
Similarly  for  the  carbon,  and  its  heat  of  combination  in  the 
carbon  compound.  There  are,  then,  some  uncertainties, 
but  not  of  much  importance,  in  the  determination  of  the  heat 
of  combustion  of  fuels — uncertainties  which  the  use  of  the 
calorimetric  bomb  has  entirely  avoided. 


26  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

A  complete  test  will  now  be  described,  giving  all  the  cor- 
rections. 

Suppose  one  gram  of  dried  coal  in  fragments  is  used. 
After  combustion  in  the  calorimeter,  weigh  the  capsule  con- 
taining the  cinders. 

Cinders  after  combustion o.  1 10  gram. 

"  "      calcination  in  the  air o.  100      " 

Unburnt  carbon  remaining  in  cinders. ...  o.oio      " 
Then 

Coal  used,  dried  at  100°  C 1 .000  gram. 

Cinders. .  .  o.  100      " 


Pure  coal  (cinders  out) 0.900      " 

Carbon  not  burnt  during  the  experiment.,  o.oio      " 

There  was  collected  from  the  combustion  of  the  hydro- 
carbons and  the  carbonic  oxide  o.  10  gram  of  carbonic  acid, 
corresponding  to  0.006  of  carbonic  oxide  (molecular  ratio 
ii  17);  also  o.oio  gram  of  water,  corresponding  to  o.oon 
gram  hydrogen  (molecular  ratio  9  :  i). 

Increase  of  temperature  of  the  bath 3.702° 

Correction 0.020 


Total  increase 3. 722* 

Calorimeter  equiv.  in  water  2.114  kilos*  and  3.722    X    2.114         =7.8683 

Unburnt  carbon o.oio    X    8.080  cal.  =  0.0808 

Carbonic  oxide 0.006    X    2.403    "    =0.0144 

Hydrogen o.oon  X  34- 500    "    =  0.0383 

Total  calories  from  0.900  gram  coal  completely  burnt  —  8.0018 

I  gram  pure  coal          =          8.891  calories, 
i  kilogram  pure  coal  =    8891  calories,  or 
i  pound  "       "    =  16003.8  B.  T.  U. 

*  2000  grams  of  vrater  +  JI4  grams  for  value  in  water  of  calorimeter  and 
accessories. 


FAVRE   AND    SILBER  MA  NN '  S   CALORIMETER.  2/ 

In  this  example  the  corrections  are  not  very  important, 
since  they  do  not  exceed  one-half  per  cent.  These  are  the 
ordinary  conditions  when  the  coal  used  is  in  pieces.  With 
pulverized  coal,  on  the  contrary,  the  quantity  of  unburnt 
carbon  and  of  combustible  gases  increases  considerably  and 
renders  results  less  certain.  The  oppor- 
tunity we  have  to  weigh  the  cinders  of 
each  test  obviates  pulverization  of  the  coal 
to  obtain  an  average  sample  of  the  cinders. 

Favre  and  Silbermann's  calorimeter  has 
been  modified  by  Berthelot  in  several  par- 
ticulars.* He  has  happily  modified  the 
agitator  and  given  it  a  coiled  form,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  a  detailed  description  of 
which  is  given  in  his  Essai  de  Mecanique 
Chimique,  p.  145* 

This  agitator  has  the  advantage  over 
the  old  one  of  more  completely  mixing 
the  water,  with  less  force,  and  without 
accelerating  evaporation.  Fig.  5  shows 
it  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  calorimeter.  FlG'  5* 

He  has  also  replaced  the  gold-plated  copper  combustion- 
chamber  by  the  glass  apparatus  which  Alexejew  used  for 
combustibles. 


*The  F.  &  S.  calorimeter  with  all  accessories  and  an  agitator  (not  me- 
chanical) costs  about  500  francs  ($100.00);  with  mechanical  agitator  arranged 
for  a  laboratory  turbine  or  dynamo  the  cost  is  about  600  francs  ($120.00). 
Berthelot's  calorimetric  bomb  of  platinum,  enamelled  inside  and  not 
double,  costs  no  more,  and  is  much  preferable.  A  single  operator  can 
handle  it,  while  the  F.  &  S.  apparatus  requires  two. 

Nevertheless,  the  manner  of  working  the  F.  &  S.  calorimeter  is  de- 
scribed in  detail,  because  its  use  is  surrounded  by  conditions  easily  realized 
in  all  countries.  The  calorimetric  bomb  requires  oxygen  compressed  to  25 
atmospheres,  which  cannot  be  obtained  everywhere. 


28 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


ALEXEJEW'S    CALORIMETER. 

The  apparatus  used  by  Alexejew  was  composed  of  a  glass 
Combustion-chamber  A  (Fig.  6),  in  which  he  burnt  the  coal 

previously  reduced  to  fragments. 
These  fragments  were  placed  on  a 
platinum  grating  in  the  centre  of 
the  chamber.  The  fuel  was  kindled 
by  means  of  a  platinum  sponge 
placed  over  it,  on  which  impinged 
a  jet  of  hydrogen  from  the  gas- 
holder M,  opening  at  c,  correction 
for  which  is  of  course  made  in  the 
calculation.  The  grating  contain- 
ing the  fuel  was  suspended  from 
the  glass  rod  a.  As  soon  as  the 
combustion  was  started  the  current 
of  hydrogen  was  cut  off  by  the  cock 
/,  and  the  oxygen  allowed  to  flow 
in  through  b,  the  waste  gases  pass- 
ing out  through  the  coil.  If  the 
combustion  was  interrupted,  it  was 
rekindled  by  the  hydrogen  and 

platinum  sponge.  The  hydrogen  used  was  calculated  in  grams 
and  Multiplied  by  34500.  The  number  of  calories  thus  ob- 
tained was  deducted  from  that  calculated  from  the  rise  in 
temperature  of  the  bath.  According  to  Alexejew,  the  im- 
portance of  this  correction  never  exceeded  one-half  per  cent, 
and  he  never  had  to  rekindle  the  fuel. 

Alexejew  did  not  determine  the  unburnt  gases,  as  experi- 
ence showed  they  never  exceeded  0.35  per  cent.  It  is  im- 
possible, however,  to  determine  the  hydrogen  of  the  hydro- 
carbons if  desired,  as  these  would  be  mixed  with  the  hydrogen 
used  for  kindling,  part  of  which  may  escape  combustion. 
The  kindling  with  hydrogen  might,  however,  be  replaced  by 
that  with  carbon,  as  in  the  F.  &  S.  apparatus. 


FIG.  6. — ALEXEJEW  CALORIM- 
ETER. 


ALEXEJEWS   CALORIMETER.  .2,9 

The  calorimeter  contained  2500  grams  (5.511  Ibs.  of 
water,  a  quantity  somewhat  larger  than  that  usually  employed, 
and  which  is  based  on  the  sensibility  of  the  thermometer. 
To  attain  the  same  degree  of  precision  it  was  necessary  to  use 
larger  samples  of  fuel  or  else  have  more  delicate  thermometers. 
The  water  was  kept  in  motion  by  the  coil-agitator. 

The  following  determination  of  the  calorific  value  of 
capryl  alcohol  will  show  the  use  of  this  calorimeter. 

Weigh  the  fuel  container  before  and  after  the  combustion 
to  determine  the  weight  of  substance  used.  If  very  volatile 
a  portion  may  be  carried  along  by  the  gases  and  condense  in 
the  accessory  apparatus.  , 

Data. 

WEIGHT  OF  ABSORPTION  APPARATUS. 

Calcium  chloride  tube \  43*?2o5 

(43-8383 

H,O , 0.0902 

Geissler  apparatus \  '  3o727 

(7L7558 


CO,  ......................        1.8169 

Soda-lime  tube  ...................      85.7280 

7209 


{  85. 
(85. 


CO, 0.0071 

Burner \    2'1      « 

(     L4378 


Substance  burnt ,  .        0.6773 

Second  calcium  chloride  tube J  9^3342 

|  96-3272 

H,O 0070 

Second  Soda-lime  tube..  .  {  9I.°925 

91.0872 

.0053 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

THERMOMETER  READINGS. 
Readings  taken  every  minute. 

17.500  18.400  20.360 

.500  .800  .352 

.498  I9.2OO  .342 

•495  -500  .332 

.494  20.000  .324 

.492  .250  .314 

.492  .320  .304 

.490  .352  .294 

.368 

17.488  =  T  .380  .282 

20.380  .272 

Combustion  begins  Combustion  ends.  .262 

17.690  20.380  =  TI  .250 

.240 
18.020  20.370  20.230 

CALCULATION  OF  RESULTS. 

Substance  burnt;  by  weight 0.6773 

"    GO, 0.6758 

Difference ooi  5 

Correction  for  Cooling.      A  =  o°.iO4. 

T,  =  20.484 
T  =  17.488 

Tt  —  T  =    2.996 

The  water  and   metal    parts    have  a  value    of    2167.679 
grams. 


CORRECTIONS. 

By  observation,  the  loss  of  heat  from  water  absorbed  in 
the  CaCl  tubes  (0.0454  gram)  was  28- 1  calories. 

The  loss  from  hydrogen  in  the  unburnt  gases  was  25.6 
calories,  and  the  loss  from  carbon  in  the  same  7.9  calories. 


FISCHER'S   CALORIMETER. 


Then 


6556.0  calories  obtained  from  6758 
grams  of  substance.     The  calorific  value  is  then 


-  9705. 


6758 


FISCHER'S  CALORIMETER. 

Fischer  made  a  combustion-chamber  of  silver  0.940  fine, 
so  that  it  would  be  less  easily  attacked 
by  sulphur,  from  which  the  gaseous  pro- 
ducts of  coal  are  rarely  free.  He  drew 
off  the  waste  gases  at  the  bottom  of  the 
apparatus  (Fig.  7),  thus  avoiding  the  in- 
convenience of  exit-tubes  in  the  cover 
of  the  combustion-chamber.  The  cool- 
ling  coil  was  replaced  by  a  flattened 
pipe  of  a  certain  size.  A  represents 
the  combustion-chamber.  The  oxygen, 
purified  by  passing  over  potash  and 
then  dried,  arrived  by  the  tube  a  fast- 
ened in  the  tube  of  the  cover  by  a 
caoutchouc  joint,  and  passed  by  means 
of  the  platinum  tube  r  into  a  crucible 
2  of  the  same  metal,  containing  one 
gram  of  the  fuel.  The  crucible  was 
covered  by  a  grating,  which  became 
red-hot  towards  the  end  of  the  opera- 

„,,    .  .,11  i  i 

tion.     This  was  intended  to  burn  the 

waste  gases,  and  the  black  deposited  at  the  beginning.      The 

gases   flowed   out  at  z,  and  after  having  encircled  the  outside 


FIG.  7.—  FISCHER'S  CAL 
ORIMETER. 


3D, 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


of  the  crucible  escaped  at  b.  The  thermometer  /  showed 
whether  the  temperature  of  the  gases  was  the  same  as  that 
of  the  bath. 

The  calorimetric  bath  contained  1500  grams  (3.3  Ibs.)  of 
water,  and  was  protected  against  external  influences  by  a 
Wood  casing,  while  the  space  C  was  filled  with  glass  wool; 
but  this  is  not  necessary,  n  is  a  brass  cover  which  may  be; 
dispensed  with.  The  thermometer  T  is  the  calorimetric 
thermometer;  m  is  an  agitator  moved  by  the  string  o.  The 
value  in  water  of  the  one  used  by  Fischer  was  113.5  calories. 
The  coal  was  dried  in  nitrogen.  The  carbonic  acid  and  the 
unburnt  carbon  were  determined. 


THOMSEN'S  CALORIMETER. 

This  calorimeter  was  designed  especially  for  tests  of  gases 
and  vapors.      It   is   not  adapted  to  tests  of  solid  fuels.      It 

consisted  (Fig.  8)  of  a  calorimetric 
bath  of  thin  brass,  with  a  capacity 
of  some  3  litres  (195  cubic  inches), 
protected  from  radiation  by  a  cylin- 
drical ebonite  envelope ;  and  a  plati- 
num balloon  of  half  a  litre  (32.5 
cubic  inches)  capacity,  in  which  the 
gases  were  burnt,  being  delivered 
through  the  opening  at  the  bottom. 
The  waste  gases  passed  off 
through  a  coil,  and  a  mechanical 
agitator  kept  the  water  in  circula- 
tion. 

The  dried  gas  was  delivered 
with  perfect  regularity  from  a  mercury  gas-holder,  sufficient 
ajr  or  oxygen  being  added  to  render  it  free-burning,  and 
enough  oxygen  was  supplied  to  insure  perfect  combustion. 
This  he  attained  by  always  having  40  to  50  per  cent  in  the 


FIG.  8.— THOMSEN  CALO- 
RIMETER. 


CARPENTER'S   CALORIMETER.  31 

waste  gases.  The  gases  passed  off  through  a  carbonic  acid 
absorbing  apparatus. 

To  reduce  to  the  minimum,  or  entirely  suppress,  the  cor- 
rection for  temperature  he  regulated  his  gas-flow  so  that  the 
temperature  was  as  much  higher  than  the  air  at  the  close  of 
the  experiment  as  it  was  lower  at  the  beginning.  This  he 
easily  did  by  means  of  his  hydrogen  supply.  If  a  liquid  was 
tested,  it  was  vaporized  and  burnt  in  a  specially  devised 
burner  which  allowed  complete  combustion  of  almost  all  com- 
pounds not  having  too  high  a  boiling-point.  If  too  high  for 
heat  vaporization,  they  were  carried  along  by  a  current  of  air, 
oxygen,  or  hydrogen,  as  seemed  best  adapted. 

The  water  of  the  calorimeter  being  weighed,  the  lower 
portion  was  closed  with  a  rubber  stopper  and  by  means  of  an 
aspirator  a  pressure  of  8  to  12  inches  of  water  was  put  on  the 
apparatus  to  test  the  joints.  When  ready,  the  temperature 
of  the  bath  and  the  air  was  noted  for  some  minutes,  the  gas- 
holder reading  taken,  the  burner  placed  in  position,  and  the 
test  commenced.  The  depression  produced  by  the  aspirator 
was  about  0.4  inch  during  the  whole  test.  The  regularity  of 
the  working  was  shown  by  a  gauge  registering  the  pressure. 
When  the  temperature  had  reached  the  desired  point  the  gas 
and  electric  current  were  shut  off,  the  burner  removed,  and 
the  opening  closed  again.  The  aspirator  was  used  to  draw 
dry  air,  freed  from  CO, ,  through  the  apparatus  to  insure 
removal  of  all  waste  gases.  The  apparatus  was  then  allowed 
to  rest,  taking  the  temperature  at  short  intervals  for  fifteen 
minutes.  He  then  had  all  the  data  required. 

CARPENTER'S  CALORIMETER. 

Prof.  R.  C.  Carpenter  devised  a  calorimeter  especially  for 
coal  determinations,  which  is  a  modification  or  extension  of 
Thomsen's.  He  has  used  it  considerably  in  connection  with 
work  he  has  been  engaged  on,  and  the  results  credited  to  him 
in  the  tables  at  the  end  of  the  book  were  obtained  with  it. 


32  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

Fig.  9  is  a  sectional  view  of  his  apparatus.      It  consists  of 
a  combustion-cylinder,    15,    with    a  removable   bottom,    ijr 


FIG.  9. — CARPENTER  CALORIMETER. 

through  which  passes  the  tube,  23,  to  supply  oxygen,  and  also 
the  wires,  26  and  27,  to  furnish  electricity  for  the  igniter. 
It  also  supports  the  asbestos  combustion-dishes,  22,  used  for 


CARPENTER'S    CALORIMETER.  33 

holding  the  fuel.  At  its  top  is  a  silver  mirror,  38,  to  deflect 
the  heat.  The  plug  is  made  of  alternate  layers  of  asbestos 
and  vulcanite.  The  products  of  combustion  pass  off  through 
the  spiral  tube,  28,  29,  30,  31,  which  is  connected  with  the 
small  chamber,  39,  attached  to  the  outer  case  of  the  instru- 
ment. This  chamber  has  a  pressure-gauge,  40,  and  a  small 
pinhole  outlet,  41.  Outside  the  chamber  is  the  calorimetric 
bath,  I,  which  is  connected  with  an  open  glass  gauge,  9,  10. 
Above  the  water  is  a  diaphragm,  12,  used  to  adjust  the  level. 

The  calorimeter  h'as  an  outer  nickel-plated  case,  polished 
on  the  inside.  The  bath  holds  about  5  pounds  of  water,  and 
uses  about  2  grams  of  coal  at  a  time.  It  is  thus  considerably 
larger  than  the  bomb,  and  the  charge  being  larger  the  time 
consumed  by  the  test  is  longer,  being  some  ten  minutes  for 
each  gram  burnt.  The  entire  outside  dimensions  of  the  case 
are  9^-  inches  high  and  6  inches  diameter. 

In  using  the  apparatus  the  coal  is  ground  to  a  powder  in  a 
mill  or  mortar.  The  asbestos  cup  is  heated  to  burn  off  all 
organic  matter  and  weighed.  The  sample  is  then  placed  in 
it,  and  the  whole  weighed  again.  This  gives  the  weight  of 
the  coal  used.  Place  it  in  the  combustion-chamber,  raise  the 
platinum  igniting  wire  above  the  coal,  make  the  connections 
with  the  battery,  and  as  soon  as  the  heat  generated  causes  the 
water  to  rise  in  the  glass  tube  turn  on  the  oxygen,  and  by 
pulling  down  the  wires  kindle  the  coal.  At  this  instant  the 
reading  on  the  glass  scale  must  be  taken. 

By  means  of  the  glasses  33,  34,  and  36  watch  the 
progress  of  the  combustion,  and  as  soon  as  finished  take  the 
scale-reading  and  the  time.  The  difference  between  this 
scale-reading  and  the  one  previously  made  is  the  "  actual" 
scale-reading. 

To  correct  for  radiation,  allow  the  apparatus  to  stand  with 
the  oxygen  shut  off  for  a  length  of  time  equal  to  that  of  the 
combustion,  and  take  the  scale-reading  and  the  time.  The 


UNIVERSITY 


34  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

difference  between  this  and  the  "  actual"  reading  is  to  be 
added  to  the  "  actual  "  for  the  "  corrected  "  reading. 

Now,  by  inspection  of  the  calibration-curve  previously 
prepared,  at  the  point  corresponding  to  the  corrected  scale- 
reading  will  be  found  the  B.  T.  U.'s  for  the  quantity  burnt. 
The  ash  is  determined  by  weighing  the  asbestos  cup  after  the 
combustion. 

The  following  shows  all  the  calculation  needed : 

Weight  of  crucible  (asbestos  cup) 1.269  grams. 

11         "        and  coal 3.017 

"     ash 1.567       " 

"        "  combustibles I-45O      " 

"        "  ash 0.297       " 

"        "  coal 1.747       " 

1.747  grams  X  0.002205  =  0.003852  pounds. 

First  scale-reading 3.90  inches;  time  2  hrs.  55  m. 

Second"          "       14.70      "  "     3    "    20  " 

Third    "          "       14.30      "  "3    "    45   " 

"Actual"  scale-reading.   14.70—     3.90=  10.80  inches. 
Radiation  correction 14.70—  14.30=       .40      " 


Corrected  reading 11.20      '  * 

On  the  calibration-sheet  11.2  corresponds  to  46.25 
B.  T.  U.'s,  and  46.25  B.  T.  U.  +  0.003852  =  12000  B.  T.  U. 
per  pound. 

All  air  must  be  removed  from  the  water  in  the  bath, 
the  apparatus  must  work  at  a  constant  pressure,  and  the 
pressure  for  which  it  is  calibrated.  A  pressure  of  10  inches 
of  water  has  been  found  satisfactory.  Complete  combustion 
Is  always  attained  in  the  asbestos  cups. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  use  of  thermometers  is  obviated, 
and  also  all  corrections  but  one.  The  apparatus  is  intended 


SCH  WA  CKHOFER  *S    CAL  OKI  ME  TER. 


35 


for  ordinary  every-day  work,  and  will  give  good  comparative 
results  when  used  according  to  directions,  which  must  be 
implicitly  followed.  The  amount  of  calculation  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum,  and  there  are  no  delicate  parts  requiring  extra. 
care  and  adjustment.  For  the  purpose  intended,  it  seems  an 
advance  over  the  others  previously  used,  which  could  never 
give  more  faint  approximations  to  correct  results. 


SCHWACKHOFER  S  CALORIMETER. 

In    1884  Schwackhofer  published  calorimetric    researches 
on  different  kinds  of  coal,  using  a  calorimeter  in  which  he  made 


FIG.  10. — SCHWACKHOFER  CALORIMETER. 

several  modifications  intended  to  render  it  specially  applicable 
to  such  fuel. 

He  considered  it  advisable  to  use  as  much  as  five  or  six 
grams  of  coal,  which  is  six  times  that  generally  used.  He 
burnt  at  the  same  time  and  under  definite  conditions,  shown 


36  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS, 

in  the  sketch  (Fig.  10),  a  certain  quantity  of  sugar-charcoal, 
the  combustion  of  which  was  intended  to  accelerate  and  com- 
plete that  of  the  coal  tested. 

In  the  figure  (Fig.  10)  ab  represents  the  combustion-cham- 
ber, c  the  calorimetric  bath.  Minor  details  of  accessories,  en- 
velopes, regulators,  etc.,  are  omitted.  The  burner  proper  is  of 
platinum  and  of  two  pieces,  a  and  b,  superimposed,  the  coal 
being  placed  in  the  lower  portion,  the  sugar-charcoal  in  the 
upper  one.  All  pieces  of  the  burner  may  be  removed  for  the 
introduction  of  the  coal  and  for  cleaning.  The  two  combus- 
tibles rest  on  perforated  plates  of  platinum,  in  which  the  per- 
forations, made  by  a  special  machine,  are  so  small  that  light 
can  hardly  pass  through,  and  from  which  the  cinders  can  be 
completely  removed ;  the  holes  in  the  upper  one  are  slightly 
larger  than  those  of  the  lower.  The  oxygen  enters  through 
three  tubes,  e,  f,  g.  Tubes  g  and  m  pass  outside  the  bath,  and 
carry  mirrors  to  allow  inspection  during  the  burning.  The 
waste  gases  pass  off  at  the  bottom  through  a  coil  n,  and  are 
collected  in  H.  This  vessel  is  simply  to  detect  smoking,  he 
having  found  that  it  happened  only  when  the  pressure  was  di- 
minished at  the  burner,  and  that  it  could  be  stopped  by  a  rein- 
statement of  the  normal  pressure,  p  represents  an  aspirator,  in 
which  are  collected  the  waste  gases.  Another  one,  not  shown 
in  the  sketch,  serves  to  contain  the  gas  analyzed.  Both  are 
filled  with  water  covered  with  a  film  of  oil.  The  oxygen 
passes  through  a  jar  s  filled  with  soda-lime,  a  bottle  o  fur- 
nished with  a  thermometer,  a  cock  /  as  regulator  of  the  flow, 
and  one  or  more  wash-bottles  q  containing  sulphuric  acid. 

The  calorimeter-chamber  c  contains  5200  cc.  (4.6  qts.)  of 
water.  5  or  6  grams  (77  to  92.5  grains)  of  coal  were  used,  with 
2  to  4  grams  (3 1  to  62  grains)  of  sugar-carbon  of  a  known 
calorific  value.  The  temperature  of  the  bath  rose  about  10° 
C.,  and  the  experiment  generally  lasted  an  hour. 

The  sugar-carbon  was  first  kindled  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
burner,  the  under  portion  burning  first.  From  this  sparks 


W.    THOMPSON'S   CALORIMETER.  37 

ivere  thrown  to  the  coal,  and  it  soon  kindled.  The  oxygen 
flowed  in  by  g  and  e.  When  combustion  was  well  under  way 
and  had  reached  the  lower  portions  of  the  coal,  g  was  shut  off 
-and /opened. 

Schwackhofer  obtained  complete  combustion  of  the  sugar- 
carbon  and  coal,  with  no  formation  of  black,  and  no  residue  of 
coke. 

The  gaseous  product  of  the  combustion  was  generally  of 
the  following  composition : 

Carbonic  acid 50      to  60      percent; 

Carbonic  oxide 1.2  to    0.3     "      " 

Oxygen IO      to  15          "      " 

Nitrogen... 30      to  40        "      " 

arising  principally  from  the  fact  that  to  keep  up  the  normal 
pressure  the  combustion-chamber  was  in  communication  with 
the  open  air.  The  cinders  were  weighed  after  each  test. 

This  apparatus  should  give  exact  results,  but  its  use  is 
complicated.  The  long  duration  of  the  test  requires  impor- 
tant corrections  for  influence  of  external  heat,  and  it  needs 
several  thermometers. 

w.  THOMPSON'S  CALORIMETER. 

W.  Thompson  devised  a  calorimeter  in  which  the  com- 
bustion is  started  by  a  jet  of  oxygen,  but  the  waste  gases  in- 
stead of  passing  through  a  coil  bubble  up  through  the  water 
of  the  calorimetric  bath.  In  this  apparatus  the  uncombined 
gases  are  naturally  neglected.  (See  Fig.  II.)  It  is  an  appa- 
ratus, as  the  inventor  says,  not  intended  for  scientific  re- 
searches, but  for  handy  use  of  mechanics  or  "  for  popular  use." 

a  is  a  galvanized-iron  gas-holder  containing  oxygen  ;  b,  a 
stop-cock  regulating  the  flow  of  water  to  this  holder ;  d,  stop- 
cock for  gas;  e,  rubber  tube;  f,  level-gauge;  g,  pressure- 
gauge;  ^,  bell-glass  covering  the  platinum  crucible  k,  in  which 
the  coal  is  burnt ;  /  is  a  support  of  earthenware  suspended 


38  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

from  the  bell-glass  by  metal  springs,  and  intended  to  insulate 
the  crucible  and  prevent  too  quick  cooling;  m  is  a  glass  jar 
containing  2000  grams  (4.4  Ibs.)  of  water,  forming  the  calori- 
metric  bath.  Water  cannot  enter  the  bell  h  while  the  cock  j 


FIG.  ii. — W.  THOMPSON  CALORIMETER. 

is  closed,  and  it  is  opened  only  when  the  pressure  in  the 
gas-holder  is  sufficient ;  n  is  a  glass  jar  filled  with  water  and 
surrounding  the  calorimetric  jar,  and  /  is  the  agitator. 

One  gram  of  fuel  is  put  into  the  crucible,  and  on  this  is 
placed  a  small  cotton  wick  impregnated  with  bichromate  of 
potash.  This  is  lighted  at  the  instant  of  putting  into  the  jar; 
and  its  combustion  aided  by  the  oxygen  kindles  the  fuel. 

This  is  an  imperfect  apparatus,  and  will  give  in  most  cases 
only  unsatisfactory  results.  Still  it  is  in  rather  common  use 
in  the  shops  of  England,  where  it  serves  principally  as  a  com- 
parative measure,  the  errors  being  considered  constant. 

BARRUS'S    CALORIMETER. 

The  Barrus  calorimeter  is  a  modification  of  the  one  just 
mentioned.  While  it  requires  considerable  care  in  using  to 
get  correct  results,  yet  it  is  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  in- 
expensive. 


BA  RR  US'  S   CA  L  OKI  ME  TER. 


39 


As  described  by  Mr.  Barrus,  "  it  consists  of  a  glass  beaker 
(Fig.  12)  5  inches  in  diameter  and  II  inches  high,  which 
can  be  obtained  of  most  dealers  in 
chemical  apparatus.  The  combus- 
tion-chamber is  of  special  form,  and 
consists  of  a  glass  bell  having  a 
notched  rib  around  the  lower  edge 
and  a  head  just  above  the  top,  with 
a  tube  projecting  a  considerable  dis- 
tance above  the  upper  end.  The 
bell  is  2J-  inches  inside  diameter,  5|- 
inches  high,  and  the  tube  above  is  f 
inch  inside  diameter  and  extends 
beyond  the  bell  a  distance  of  9 
inches.  The  base  consists  of  a  cir- 
cular plate  of  brass  4  inches  in  diam- 
eter, with  three  clips  fastened  on 
the  upper  side  for  holding  down 
the  combustion-chamber.  The  base 
is  perforated,  and  the'  under  side 
has  three  pieces  of  cork  attached, 
which  serve  as  feet.  To  the  centre 
of  the  upper  side  of  the  plate  is  attached  a  cup  for  holding 
the  platinum  crucible  in  which  the  coal  is  burned.  To  the 
upper  end  of  the  bell,  beneath  the  head,  a  hood  is  attached 
made  of  wire  gauze,  which  serves  to  intercept  the  rising 
bubbles  of  gas  and  retard  their  escape  from  the  water.  The 
top  of  the  tube  is  fitted  with  a  cork,  and  through  this  is 
inserted  a  small  glass  tube  which  carries  the  oxygen  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  combustion-chamber.  This  tube  is  movable 
up  and  down,  and  to  some  extent  sideways,  so  as  to  direct 
the  current  of  oxygen  to  any  part  of  the  crucible  and  to 
adjust  it  to  a  proper  distance  from  the  burning  coal." 

The  method   of  working  it   can   be   easily  seen   from   the 
description  and  cut.      In    burning  very  smoky  coals  he  mixes 


FIG.  12. — BARRUS  CALORIM- 
ETER. 


40  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

them  with  a  proportion  of  non-smoking  coal  of  known  calo- 
rific value,  and  when  anthracite  or  coke  is  burnt  he  mixes  it 
with  a  small  portion  of  bituminous  coal.  In  Mr.  Barrus's 
hands  very  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained. 

HARTLEY    AND    JUNKER'S    CALORIMETER. 

Hartley's  calorimeter  is  an  apparatus  of  constant  pressure 
and  continued  combustion.  The  gas  measured  by  a  meter  is 
burnt  in  a  Bunsen  burner  surrounded  by  a  cylindrical  copper 


FIG.  13. — JUNKER  CALORIMETER. 

vessel  filled  with  water,  which  is  constantly  renewed.  The 
flow  of  liquid  is  such  as  to  avoid  much  heating  and  time  suf- 
ficient is  used  to  increase  the  temperature  so  as  to  have  a  good 
thermometric  observation.  The  volume  or  weight  of  the  water 
is  determined  at  such  intervals  and  the  thermometric  readings 
taken  often  enough  to  obtain  an  average. 


JUNKER'S   CALORIMETER  41 

Hugo  Junker's  modification  of  the  apparatus  rendered  it 
more  exact.  It  has  been  used  for  some  time  in  Germany 
and  in  the  United  States.  It  is  composed  (Fig.  13)  of  a 
gas-meter  a,  preceded  by  a  very  sensitive  regulator  b.  On 
leaving  the  meter  the  gas  passes  to  a  Bunsen  burner  c.  The 
products  of  combustion  give  up  their  heat  to  a  calorimetric 
tube  d,  through  which  regularly  flows  a  stream  of  water.  The 
temperature  of  the  gases  is  regulated  by  means  of  a  thermom- 
eter e.  In  order  to  keep  the  flow  of  water  as  regular  as  pos- 
sible, it  flows  from  the  supply-tube  g  into  a  small  reservoir 
kept  at  a  constant  level  governed  by  the  tube  h.  The  water 
passes  through  i  to  the  calorimeter  and  escapes  at  k,  run- 
ning into  the  glass  in  which  it  is  measured  or  weighed.  The  • 
graduated  tube  /  is  to  catch  the  condensed  water  from  the 
interior  of  the  calorimeter.  The  thermometer  m  shows  the 
heat  of  the  escaping  water,  and  n  that  of  the  water  enter- 
ing the  calorimeter. 

To  calculate  the  calories  generated  during  the  combustion 
proceed  as  follows: 

Measure  the  quantity  of  water  which  runs  through  it  in 
one  minute,  take  the  temperature  of  the  two  thermometers,"^ 
and  note  the  flow  of  gas.  The  heat  of  combustion  per  cubic 
metre  of  burnt  gas  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  volume  of 
water  flowing  per  minute  by  the  difference  of  the  two  temper- 
atures and  dividing  the  product  by  the  gas  volume  burnt  per 
minute. 

Thus: 

Volume  of  water  flowing  per  minute 902.3  cc. 

"         "  gas  burnt  per  minute 2500.0  cc. 

Temperature  at  inlet ...          13.  i°  C. 

"  outlet 27.5°  C. 

-.A.     .902. 3,X  (,27.;  -   13.0 
Q  =  -  -  =   5196  calories. 


42  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

The  gas  tested  has  a  value  of  5  196  calories  per  cubic  metre. 

Since    the  calorie  is    3.968   times  the  B.  T.  U.,  and  the 

cubic   metre   is    35.316    times    the  'cubic     foot,    multiplying 

the  calories   per   cubic   metre  by — ~ — ^0.11235   will  give 

B.  T.  U.'s  per  cubic  foot. 
Multiplying,  then, 

5  196  X  0. 1 1235  =  583.8  B.  T.  U.'s  per  cubic  foot. 

The  above  example  considered  the  volume  of  the  water. 
It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  consider  the  weight  instead.  The 
following  example  illustrates  this: 

Weight  of  water  used  during  the  test 2000  grams. 

Volume  of  gas  burnt 7.23  litres. 

Temperature  at  inlet 14-4°  C. 

"  outlet 36.5°  C. 

Then 

2000  X  (36.5  -  H.4) 
Q  =  -  — -  =  6102  calories  per  cubic  metre, 

and 

6102  X  0.11235  =  685.6  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot. 

Two  causes  of  error  may  occur.  It  is  not  certain  that  the 
combustion  of  the  gas  in  the  burner  is  regular;  indications  by 
gas-meters  are  not  always  very  sure,  the  start  being  capricious. 
But  these  do  not  have  much  weight  in  its  use  for  industrial 
purposes,  for  which  it  is  chiefly  designed.  The  results  are 
very  near  those  obtained  by  other  methods.  Stohmann,  whose 
competence  in  such  matters  is  universally  recognized,  says 
they  give  good  results. 

Bueb-Dessau,  to  prove  the  calorimeter,  burnt  hydrogen 
prepared  by  electrical  decomposition,  and  obtained  after  cor- 
rections for  thermometer  and  barometer  34150  calories  per 


LEWIS    THOMPSON'S    CALORIMETER. 


43 


kilogram — a  difference  of  350  calories  from  the  usual  number, 
34500,  or  only  9  thousandths. 

Prof.  Jacobus  has  determined  that  there  is  a  constant  error 
due  to  neglect  of  latent  heat  of  moisture  in  products  of  com- 
bustion of  —2  per  cent  in  the  determinations  with  this  appa- 
ratus; otherwise  it  is  very  satisfactory. 


LEWIS    THOMPSON  S    CALORIMETER. 

Lewis  Thompson's  calorimeter  has  been  used  in  England 
for  some  time.  It  gives  only  approximate  results,  but  as  the 
errors  are  of  the  same  kind  in  each  case,  the  results  are  com- 
parable, and  it  has  been  found  serviceable  in  industrial  works 
where  quick  and  comparative  observations  are  required. 

The  apparatus  (Fig.  14)  is  composed  of  a  glass  calorimeter- 
bath  H  containing  water,  a  copper  cylinder  E  in  which  the 


FIG.  14. — L.  THOMPSON  CALORIMETER. 


FIG.  15. — CALORIMETER 
IN  ACTION. 


mixture  of  coal  and  potassa  chlorate  is  placed,  and  surmounted 
by  the  nitrate  of  lead  fuse  F.  Enclosing  this  cylinder  is  a  bell 
Dy  having  a  tube  £7  carrying  a  stop-cock.  The  cock  is  closed 
before  putting  it  in  position  in  the  water.  K  is  a  cleaner  for 
the  tube  C,  and./  is  a  thermometer. 


44  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

The  fuze  is  lighted,  and  the  whole  quickly  put  in  the  jar  of 
water.  The  mixture  of  combustible  and  potassium  chlorate 
soon  ignites  and  burns,  all  the  gases  generated  being  forced 
out  at  the  bottom  of  the  bell  through  the  perforations,  arid 
•bubble  up  through  the  liquid.  After  the  combustion  is  finished 
the  temperature  is  taken  and  the  heat-units  calculated. 

From  8  to  10  parts  of  oxidizing  mixture  is  recommended 
for  one  of  coal;  but  if  the  coal  is  very  rich  this  must  be 
increased  to  1 1  parts,  calculated  on  the  crude  coal.  With 
pure  coal,  cinders  out,  the  extreme  limits  are  11  and  14  parts. 
It  would  probably  increase  the  accuracy  of  the  method,  if 
the  same  quantity  of  oxidizing  mixture  was  employed,  what- 
ever the  kind  of  coal  used,  and  to  mix  with  it  inert  substances, 
as  silica  or  ground  porcelain,  in  quantity  varying  with  the 
richness  of  the  coal. 

Scheurer-Kestner  tested  this  apparatus  very  carefully, 
using  a  great  variety  of  fuels  whose  heats  had  been  previously 
ascertained  by  means  of  Favre  and  Silbermann's  calorimeter. 
He  found  some  15  per  cent  deficit  in  the  figures,  and  after 
correcting  by  this  amount  the  results  varied  only  a  few  per 
cent  from  those  actually  obtained.  In  thirty  different  kinds 
of  coal  tested  the  average  was  1.8  per  cent  too  low. 

The  use  of  this  calorimeter  requires  some  skill.  Its  imper- 
fect insulation  requires  prompt  reading  and  rapid  combustion. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  work  at  temperatures  very  close  to 
that  of  the  room,  as  the  calorimetric  bath  is  not  protected. 
The  proportions  of  the  mixture  used  vary,  not  only  with  each 
kind  of  coal,  but  for  each  sample,  on  account  of  the  propor- 
tions of  cinders.  Fat  coals  require  more  oxidizer  than  lean 
coals,  as  it  is  evident  an  increase  in  quantity  of  cinders  should 
require  a  decrease  in  oxidizer.  But  in  changing  the  propor- 
tions of  oxidizer  a  certain  difference  in  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture is  necessarily  produced  by  the  heat  of  solution  of  the 
salts  left  after  the  combustion.  These  various  causes  render 
its  working  rather  delicate,  and  always  uncertain. 


CHAPTER    V. 
CALORIMETERS   WITH   CONSTANT   VOLUME. 

THE  results  obtained  with  a  calorimeter  of  constant  volume 
are  not  exactly  the  same  as  those  obtained  with  one  of  con- 
stant pressure;  but  for  solid  or  liquid  substances  the  difference 
is  too  small  to  consider,  since  the  volume,  as  well  as  that  of 
the  water  produced,  is  inconsiderable  in  relation  to  the  volume 
of  gas  employed.  As  regards  the  correction  for  contraction 
and  expansion  of  the  gases,  they  also  are  inconsiderable. 

In  his  Trait^  de  Mtcanique  Berthelot  has  shown  that 
the  heat  generated  by  a  reaction  between  gases  at  constant 
pressure  is  equal  to  the  heat  of  combination  at  constant 
volume  at  any  temperature  whatever,  increased  by  the  pre- 
ceding product  counting  from  absolute  zero;  and  he  gives  the 
following  formula  for  passing  from  one  system  to  the  other  : 

QTP  =  QTV  +  0.5424^-  N' 


QTP  being  the  heat  generated  by  the  reaction  at  constant 
pressure,  and  at  the  temperature  T  counting  from  ordinary 
zero;  QTV,  the  heat  generated  by  the  reaction  at  same  tem- 
perature and  constant  volume  ;  N,  the  number  of  units  of 
molecular  volume  occupied  by  the  components,  these  being 
taken  according  to  usage  equal  to  22.32  litres  under  normal 
pressure  at  o°  ;  N'  ',  the  corresponding  number  of  units  of 
molecular  volume  occupied  by  the  product  of  the  reaction. 

As  example,  take  the  combustion  of  carbonic  oxide  at  15°. 
Then  we  have 

CO  +  O  =  CO2  generates  at  constant  volume  68  calories.* 

*  These  numbers  refer  to  molecular  weights. 

45 


46  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

To  pass  from  this  to  the  heat  given  off  under  constant 
pressure,  observe  that  CO  occupies  a  unit  of  volume  and  O  a 
half  unit.  Then 

N   =  ij. 
CO,  occupies  a  unit  of  volume  and 

N'  =  i. 
Hence  N  -  N' =  J.j 

At  o°  there  would  be,  then,  for  the  difference  between  the 
heat  of  combustion  at  constant  pressure  and  that  at  constant 
volume, 

+  0.542  x  J  =  +  0.271  calories. 

At  +  15°  add  to  this -f-  0.015,  which  increases  the  cor- 
rection then  to  0.286.  The  heat  of  combustion  of  carbonic 
oxide  at  constant  pressure  and  15°  is  then  -|-  68.29  calories. 

With  a  solid  or  liquid,  this  volume  in  relation  to  those 
of  the  gases  formed  may  be  practically  neglected,  the  same 
as  with  the  water;  all  reduce  then  to.  the  contraction  and 
expansion  of  the  gases.  Thus,  for  naphthalin,  this  correc- 
tion does  not  exceed  8.8  in  9692  calories — less  than  o.  i  per 
cent. 

In  case  of  solids  or  liquids  with  unknown  molecular 
weight,  as  with  fuels  generally,  this  difference  irtey  still  be 
approximately  calculated,  as  it  is  sufficient  to  know  the  volume 
of  oxygen  used  in  the  combustion  and  that  of  the  gases  pro- 
duced. 

The  first  calorimeter  of  .constant  volume  in  date  is  that  of 
Thomas  Andrews,  who  in  1848  published  results  obtained 
with  a  closed  calorimeter.  The  calorimeter  was  not  applicable 
to  solids  or  liquids ;  the  combustion  of  the  gases  was  con- 
ducted as  in  a  eudiometer,  but  he  did  not  take  all  the 
precautions  necessary  to  be  certain  of  complete  combustion. 


ANDREWS'    CALORIMETER.  47 

Nevertheless,  the  results  obtained  for  certain  gases  are 
remarkable,  considering  the  elementary  character  of  his 
apparatus  and  working.  The  combustion  of  solids,  on  the 
contrary,  gave  worthless  results. 

The  calorimetric  bomb  of  Berthelot  and  Vielle  seems  able 
to  replace  advantageously  all  the  other  calorimeters  as  much 
by  its  convenience  as  by  its  certainty  of  results. 

Since  Berthelot  and  Vielle's  original  form  was  published 
many  minor  changes  have  been  made  in  the  bomb.  All  the 
modern  workers  seem  to  prefer  some  modification  of  this  form, 
in  preference  to  any  of  the  other  and  older  kinds.  There  are 
so  many  points  of  superiority  possessed  by  the  bomb  in  ease 
and  rapidity  of  working,  accuracy,  convenience,  etc.,  which 
liave  caused  it  to  be  universally  used. 

ANDREWS'  CALORIMETER. 

In  1848  Andrews  published  his  labors  on  the  heat  of 
combustion  of  bodies,  and  notably  on  that  disengaged  by 
combustion  of  different  gases.  He  used  a  cal- 
orimeter of  constant  volume,  in  which  the  com- 
bustion-chamber was  a  copper  cylinder  (Fig. 
16)  weighing  170  grams  (6  ounces),  of  380 
cubic  centimetres  (about  23^  cubic  inches)  ca- 
pacity, and  capable  of  resisting  the  pressure 

•exerted   by  the  combustion   of  the  same  vol-  FIG.  16. 

e     i    r  //-  TT  \      -..I  ANDREWS'  CALO- 

ume  of  olefiant  gas  (C,H4)  with  oxygen.  RIMETER. 

At  the  upper  part,  the  cylinder  had  a  small  conical  tube 
closed  by  means  of  a  perfect-fitting  stopper  b.  A  silver  wire 
a  was  fixed  in  this  stopper,  and  to  this  was  soldered  a  very 
fine  platinum  wire  for  igniting  the  gases  by  a  galvanic 
current.  The  mixture  of  gases  was  prepared  as  for  eudio- 
metric  analysis. 

The  combustion-chamber  was  entirely  submerged  in  a 
glass  cylinder  filled  with  water,  of  which  the  temperature  is 


43  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

regulated  so  as  to  compensate  approximately  for  the  probable 
use,  and  thus  avoid  corrections  for  influence  of  external  air. 
This  cylinder  was  put  into  another,  also  of  glass.  A  rotary 
motion  imparted  to  the  cylinder  aided  circulation  in  the 
liquid  during  combustion,  which  usually  lasted  thirty-five 
seconds. 

Andrews  also  applied  his  calorimeter  to  combustion  of 
solids,  'but  judging  from  the  low  results  he  did  not  have  per- 
fect combustion.  The  results  obtained  with  some  of  the 
gases,  on  the  contrary,  are  quite  reliable,  notwithstanding  the 
imperfections  of  the  apparatus. 

CALORIMETRIC    BOMB    OF    BERTHELOT   AND    VIELLE. 

Of  all  the  calorimeters  known  to-day,  the  calorimetric 
bomb  of  Berthelot  is  that  which  offers  the  most  advantages, 
as  much  from  its  ease  of  operation  as  from  the  precision  of 
its  results.  Only  one  operator  is  needed ;  the  combustion  is 
perfect ;  the  gaseous  products  need  not  be  analyzed  to  deter- 
mine the  combustible  substance ;  no  weight  save  that  of  the 
substance  used  is  needed ;  and  it  is  as  applicable  to  solids  and 
liquids  as  to  gases. 

True,  its  use  requires  oxygen  under  high  pressure ;  but 
this  pressure  (25  atmospheres)  may  be  readily  obtained  with  a 
compression-pump,  which  is  easily  procured ;  and  at  the 
present  time  oxygen  may  be  bought  sufficiently  compressed 
for  the  purpose.  Berthelot  states  that  as  much  as  5  or  even 
10  per  cent  of  nitrogen  is  allowable,  but  that  the  latter  limit 
must  not  be  exceeded. 

Mahler  Osed  compressed  oxygen,  and  obtained  good 
results  with  that  bought  in  the  Paris  market.  This  gas  is 
furnished  in  steel  tubes  and  under  120  atmospheres  pressure. 
The  cylinders  contain  sufficient  gas  to  make  a  large  number 
of  experiments  before  the  pressure  falls  too  low,  i.e.,  below 
25  atmospheres. 


BER  THEL  OT'S    CA  LOR  I  ATE  TER. 


Fig.  17  shows  the  bomb  adjusted   ready  to  place  in  the 
calorimeter.      Full  details  of  the  construction 
will  be  found  in  Berthelot  and  Vielle's  treatise, 
Sur  la  force  des  metiers  explosives,  vol.  I ,  p. 
245. 

Fig.  2 1  shows  the  arrangement  adopted 
by  Berthelot  to  burn  solids.  The  cylinder 
(Fig.  1 8)  is  lined  with  platinum,  and  con- 
structed so  as  to  resist  a  pressure  of  200  to 
300  atmospheres.  It  is  furnished  with  a 
tight-fitting  head  (Fig.  17)  fastened  ex- 
teriorly by  a  piece  of  steel  (Fig.  19),  clamped 
on  the  external  face  of  the  bomb  by  a  screw- 
clamp  (Fig.  20),  which  does  not  form  a  part  of  the  apparatus-, 
as  immersed. 

The  sealing  of  the  bomb  results  from  the  adherence  of 
the  margin  of  the  head  BB  (Fig.  21),  and  the  interior  of 
the  cylinder,  and  also  between  the  platinum  of  the  head  and! 
the  platinum  of  the  cylinder.  Berthelot  makes  the  joint 


FIG.  17.. 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  19. 


FIG.  20. 


tight  with  a  smearing  of  vaseline  around  the  opening,  being 
careful  not  to  have  a  trace  on  the  inside.  If  no  bubbles 
escape  on  putting  it  into  the  calorimetric  bath,  the  joints  are 
tight. 

The  cover  is  pierced  at  the  centre  with  a  small  hole,  in, 
which  is  fitted  a  tube  formed  of  a  hollow  screw  acting  a.s  a 
cock,  and  itself  provided  at  the  upper  end  with  a  circular 
head.  The  electric  ignition  is  produced  by  a  platinum  wire 

sna* 

UNIVERSITY 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


fitting  in  an  opening  of  the  removable  conical  cover  E.  This 
is  prepared  (Fig.  2 1)  in  advance,  and  is  covered  with  a  layer 
of  gum  lac  applied  in  a  strong  alcoholic  solution.  When  the 
first  coat  is  dry,  a  second  one  is  put  on  and 
dried  in  a  stove.  Berthelot  says  that  the 
combination  of  these  two  coatings,  one  elas- 
tic and  soft,  the  other  hard  and  brittle, 
resists  very  well  the  enormous  pressure  on 
the  cone.  This  cone,  lightly  greased,  is  put 
into  the  conical  opening  in  the  bomb  cover, 
and  screwed  up  tight  by  means  of  a  nut.  It 
is  well  to  protect  the  base  of  the  cone  by  a 
film  of  mica. 

An  electric  current  passed  through  E 
(Fig.  21)  reddens  the  spiral  of  very  thin 
iron  wire  f  placed  between  the  platinum 
wires  and  one  of  the  supports  ^S  of  the  cap- 
sule cc  containing  the  substance  m.  This  iron  wire  soon 
burns  and  kindles  the  combustible. 

Fig.  22  gives  a  general  and  complete  internal  view. 
The  iron  spiral  is  formed   of  an   iron  wire  -^  millimetre 
(0.004  inch)  thick,  rolled  up  on  a  spindle.      The  wire  may  be 
weighed,  or  by  using  the  same  length  of  wire  always  have  the 
same  weight. 

The  spiral  is  attached  on  one  side  to  the  cone,  and  on  the 
other  side  by  means  of  a  platinum  wire  to  the  platinum  sup- 
porting the  fuel,  taking  care  that  the  iron  has  no  straight  por- 
tions. The  support  of  the  capsule  or  platinum-foil  is  then 
fixed  in  the  cover,  by  aid  of  the  screw,  arranging  it  so  that 
the  spiral  is  directly  over  the  combustible  used.  The  cover 
is  put  on,  turning  it  gently  to  make  the  contact  more  perfect. 
The  nut  is  tightened  and  the  wire  carefully  screwed  up, 
always  using  wooden  tongs  to  prevent  injuring  the  bomb. 

The  form  of  the  bomb  is  such  as  permits  filling  the  calo- 
rimeter with  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  water — a  neces- 


BERTHELOT'S    CALORIMETER.  5 1 

sary  condition  that  the  temperature,  and  consequently  the 
precision,  attain  a  high  degree.  For  solids  and  also  for  coal 
Berthelot  uses  bombs  containing  400  to  600  cubic  centimetres 
(24  to  37  cubic  inches),  placed  in  a  calorimeter  of  2000  grams 
(4.4  Ibs.)  of  water. 

To  determine  the  heat  of  combustion  of  coal,  for  instance, 


FIG.  22.— BERTHELOT  BOMB. 

it  must  be  previously  reduced  to  powder  in  order  to  have  a 
sample  whose  cinder  is  known.  As  all  kinds  of  coal  do  not 
burn  completely  in  this  state,  they  are  formed  into  pastilles,* 
which  are  weighed  and  burnt.  They  are  put  on  a  platinum 
grating  or  foil,  placed  on  the  support  55  (Fig.  21),  over 

*We  obtain  very  resisting  pastilles  or  briquettes  from  fat  coals  by 
simple  compression  in  a  pastille  or  suppository  mould  such  as  used  by 
druggists.  With  lean  coals,  or  anthracite,  the  pastilles  are  too  friable  and 
burn  incompletely.  This  is  easily  remedied  by  mixing  with  a  small 
quantity  of  silicate  of  soda  solution.  Several  of  them  should  be  made  at 
a  time,  the  cinders  of  some  being  determined  to  obtain  a  mean  and  the 
others  burnt  in  the  bomb.  They  may  contain  about  I  gram  of  pure  coal. 


52  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

which  and  in  contact  with  it  is  the  iron  spiral.  At  the 
instant  of  lighting  a  slight  noise  is  made,  and  soon  the  ther- 
mometer begins  to  rise,  showing  that  the  combustion  is  pro- 
ceeding. 

Compressed  oxygen  may  be  introduced  either  by  a  pump 
drawing  the  gas  from  a  holder  or  by  using  a  compressed-gas 
cylinder.  In  both  cases  the  gas  is  used  without  drying,  if 
the  combustible  contains  hydrogen  in  quantity  enough  to 
saturate  the  gases  formed  with  water  produced  by  its  combus- 
tion. But  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  combustible  has  little  or 
no  hydrogen,  like  wood-charcoal  for  instance,  it  is  not  im- 
material whether  the  oxygen  be  dry  or  not.  In  this  case  it 
is  well  to  use  the  oxygen  moist,  or  to  put  a  little  water  in  the 
bomb  on  the  internal  walls.  By  this  means  a  correction  for 
heat  of  vaporization  of  water  formed  by  the  combustion  is 
obviated. 

Oxygen  compressed  to  120  atmospheres  is  nearly  dry. 
Eerthelot  observes:  "The  oxygen  is,  in  short,  actually  or 
nearly  dry,  and  if  it  contains  aqueous  vapor  the  tension  is 
reduced  to  one  fourth  or  one  fifth  on  account  of  the  change 
in  volume  of  the  gas  during  its  passage  through  the  bomb.  It 
may  be  nearly  nullified  by  the  cold  produced  at  the  instant  of 
filling  the  bomb.  This  admitted,  we  shall  have  to  account  in 
most  combustions  for  the  evaporation  of  the  water  produced 
in  the  bomb;  and  this  is  from  2  to  3.5  calories  in  a  bomb  of 
^  litre  (about  0.6  pint),  or  5  to  6  calories  in  a  bomb  of  600  to 
700  cubic  centimetres  (37  to  43  cubic  inches).  These  are 
rather  small  quantities,  it  is  true ;  but  while  they  can  be 
neglected  in  industrial  tests,  they  cannot  in  rigorously 
scientific  investigations.  This  correction  may,  however,  be 
neutralized  by  putting  into  the  bomb  4  or  5  cc.  of  water, 
•which  should  be  considered  in  the  calculations. 

When  oxygen  not  previously  compressed  is  used  and 
forced  in  by  a  pump,  Berthelot  recommends  passing  the  gas 
through  a  large  red-hot  copper  tube  filled  with  oxide  of  the 


BERTHELOT'S    CALORIMETER.  53 

same  metal,  so  as  to  burn  any  oil  which  may  have  been  taken 
from  the  pump. 

Operation. — At  the  laboratory  of  the  College  of  France 
the  successive  operations  are  as  follows : 

1 .  Light  the  fire  to  heat  the  oxygen  red-hot ; 

2.  While  the  gas-holder  is  filling  with  oxygen,  the  fuel  is 
dried ; 

3.  Weigh  the  fuel; 

4.  Place  the  fuel  in  the  bomb; 

5.  Grease  the  cover  slightly;    tighten  with  the  screw; 

6.  Begin    to   compress   the   oxygen  by  forcing  the  air  out 
with   a   few  strokes   of  the  piston ;   pump  slowly  to  prevent 
heating  the  pump ; 

7.  Close  the  stop-cock  of  the  pump  ;   break  the  connection 
with  the  bomb,  extinguish  the  fire,  and  replace  the  bomb  on 
its  support  so  as  to  carry  it  to  the  calorimeter  room  ; 

8.  Pour  the  water  into  the  calorimetric  bath. 

The  apparatus  is  allowed  to  come  to  equilibrium,  and  the 
readings  of  the  thermometer  taken  for  five  minutes.  The 
iron  coil  is  then  heated  by  the  electric  current  from  a  small 
bichromate  battery.  It  takes  fire  and  kindles  the  combustible, 
which  generally  burns  without  smoke  or  producing  any  car- 
bonic oxide,  as  Berthelot  has  shown.* 

The  water  condensed  from  the  combustion  contains  small 
quantities  of  nitric  acid,  showing  imperfectly  purified  gas.  This 
may  be  determined  by  titration,  if  accurate  results  are  sought, 
and  calculated  0.227  calories  per  gram  of  HNO,.  The  cor- 
rection will  be  very  small.  A  correction  for  the  iron  used 
may  be  made  at  the  rate  of  1.65  calories  per  gram,  this  being- 
the  heat  of  formation  of  the  magnetic  oxide. 

*  With  very  fat  coals  it  sometimes  happens  after  a  combustion  that  the 
platinum  shows  a  black  or  brown  mark,  indicating  a  slight  deposit  of  black 
or  tar  which  has  escaped  combustion.  Occasionally,  also,  a  trace  of  tar  is 
found  at  the  bottom  of  the  bomb.  These  may  be  prevented  by  using  a 
grating  or  perforated  plate  instead  of  the  foil.  This  detail  must  be  attended 
to  with  a  new  coal. 


54  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

With  substances  containing  nitrogen  and  sulphur,  such  as 
coal,  the  corrections  are  more  complicated,  as  a  larger  quantity 
of  nitric  acid  is  formed  and  the  sulphur  forms  sulphuric  acid. 
If  exactness  is  sought,  it  will  not  be  sufficient  to  make  a  volu- 
metric test :  the  sulphuric  acid  must  be  determined  separately. 
Generally,  however,  this  estimation  may  be  dispensed  with,  if 
for  technical  purposes  only.  When,  on  the  contrary,  ab- 
solutely correct  figures  are  desired,  both  acids  must  be  con- 
sidered. In  the  calculation  the  nitric  acid  is  reckoned  as 
0.227  calorie  per  gram  and  the  sulphuric  acid  as  1.44  calories 
per  gram. 

But  these  two  corrections  are  really  unimportant  even 
with  coal,  as  it  contains  usually  only  about  I  per  cent  of 
nitrogen  or  sulphur.  One  per  cent  of  nitrogen  represents  4^ 
per  cent  of  HNO3,  or  10  calories;  one  per  cent  of  sulphur 
represents  3  per  cent  of  H2SO4 ,  or  43  calories, — both  quite 
small  compared  with  7000  to  8000  calories. 

Below  will  be  found  the  details  of  a  complete  combustion 
taken  from  Berthelot's  work. 

HEAT   OF   COMBUSTION   OF   CARBON. 

The  wood  charcoal,  purified  by  chlorine  at  red  heat  to- 
remove  all  traces  of  hydrogen  (Favre  and  Silbermann's 
method),  is  dried  at  120°  to  140°  C.  (248°  to  284°  F.),  then 
weighed  in  a  closed  tube  after  cooling  in  a  sulphuric  acid 
desiccator. 

0.437  gram  carbon;   cinders,  0.0028  gram  (0.66  per  cent); 
real  carbon,  0.4342  gram. 

PRELIMINARY  PERIOD. 


o  minute i7-36oc 

1st      "      17.360 

2d      "      17-360 


3d  minute 17.360° 

4th      "     17.360 


BERTHELOT'S   CALORIMETER.  55 


COMBUSTION. 


5th  minute 18.500' 

6th      "  18.782 


7th  minute 18.820' 

8th       "  18.818 


SUBSEQUENT  PERIOD. 


9th  minute 18.810° 

loth       "      18.802 

nth       " 18.795 

Initial  cooling  per  minute, 


I2th  minute 18.785" 

1 3th       •«      18.775 

1 4th       "      18.768 


=  0.00°. 


Final  cooling  per  minute, 

Atn  —  +  0.008°. 
Correction  for  cooling, 

At  =  -f  0.056°. 
Variation  of  temperature,  uncorrected, 

18.818°-  17.360°=  1.438°. 
Value  of  corrected  temperature, 

1.438°  +  0.056°=  1.484°. 
Value  in  water  of  the  calorimeter  (including  oxygen), 

m  =  2398.4. 
Weight  of  acid  formed  ; 
HNO3  =  5  cc.  of  ^V  normal  KHO  =  0.0173  gram. 


56  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

Total  heat  observed,  ql  —  3.5562  calories. 

Heat  of  iron  coil,          22. 
••     "O.I73HNO,,    3. 

Real  heat  due  to  the  carbon,  3.5299       " 

or  for  one  gram,  =  8. 1296  calories, 

0.4342 

or  per  kilogram,      8129.6  calories, 

or       14871.0  B.  T.  U.  per  pound. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  CALORIMETRIC   BOMB  ADAPTED  TO 
INDUSTRIAL   USE   BY   MAHLER. 

THE  calorimetric  bomb  of  Berthelot  costs  considerably 
more  than  can  be  paid  by  an  industrial  laboratory,  owing  to 
its  large  amount  of  platinum.  Mahler  replaced  the  interior 
platinum  of  the  bomb  by  an  enamel  deposited  on  the  steel. 
The  description  given  by  him  in  his  paper  before  the  Socittt 
d*  Encouragement  de  Paris,  in  June,  1892,  is  as  follows:  «;.i 

The  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  23.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  steel  shell,  B,  capable  of  resisting  50  atmospheres 


FIG.  23. — MAHLER  CALORIMETER. 


and  22  per  cent  elongation.  This  quality  was  carefully  chosen, 
not  only  on  account  of  the  pressure  it  must  stand,  but  also  ,as 
it  aids  the  enameling.  The  metal  is  very  pure,  containing  but 

57     ; 


5 3  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

little  phosphorus  or  sulphur.  Tensile  strength  tests  are  the 
best  criterion  of  quality. 

It  has  a  capacity  of  654  cc.  (40  cubic  inches)  at  15°  C.  It 
is  gauged  with  a  balance  showing  -g-^-J--^.  The  total  weight 
is  about  4  kilograms  (8.8  Ibs.)  with  the  accessories.*  The 
metal  of  the  walls  is  8  millimetres  (about  0.3  inch). 

The  capacity  is  greater  than  Berthelot's,  and  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  insuring  perfect  combustion  of  carbon  in  all  cases, 
due  to  a  certain  excess  of  oxygen,  even  when  the  purity  of 
this  gas  as  bought  is  not  quite  satisfactory.  Besides,  it  is 
designed  to  study  all  industrial  gases,  even  those  containing 
a  large  percentage  of  inert  gas ;  hence  it  must  be  able  to  use 
a  sufficiently  large  quantity  to  generate  the  required  tempera- 
ture. The  contraction  at  the  top  aids  in  enameling. 

The  shell  is  nickeled  on  the  outside,  while  internally  it- 
has  a  coating  of  white  enamel,  resisting  corrosion  and  oxidiz- 
ing action  of  the  combustion. f  It  does  not,  however,  offer 
resistance  to  the  heat,  being  very  thin,  and  it  weighs  only 
about  20  grams  (308  grains). 

It  is  closed  by  an  iron  stopper  made  tight  by  a  lead  washer 
(P,  Fig.  33)  and  clamped  down.  This  carries  a  conical-seated 
stop-cock,  R,  of  fine  nickel — a  metal  almost  unoxidizable. 
An  electrode  well  insulated  and  reaching  the  interior  by  a  plat- 
inum wire  runs  through  the  stopper. 

Fig.  24  shows  most  of  the  details. 

Another  platinum  wire,  also  fixed  on  the  cover,  supports 
the  platinum  disk  or  foil  on  which  the  fuel  is  placed. 

The  calorimeter,  the  non-conducting  material,  the  support 
for  the  shell  in  the  water,  and  the  agitator  differ  in  numerous 
details  from  those  of  Berthelot,  and  are  much  cheaper. 


*  Slight  modifications  have  been  made  in  the  dimensions  of  the  metal  of 
the  bombs  made  lately  by  Golaz. 

f  Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater  finds  that  the  enamel  chips  off  in  time,  and  that 
after  about  300  combustions  it  requires  re-enameling.  Hempel  for  coal 
determinations  uses  one  without  any  inside  enamel. 


MAHLER'S   CALORIMETER. 


59 


The  calorimeter  is  of  thin  brass,  and  is  quite  large  on  ac- 
count of  the  size  of  the  combustion-chamber.  It  contains 
2200  grams  (4.85  Ibs.)  of  water,  thus  eliminating  the  causes  of 
error  due  to  the  loss  of  a  few  drops  by  evaporation.*  The 
agitator  of  Berthelot  is  supplanted  by  a  very  simple  and  gentle 
cinematic  combination  called  a  drill 
movement,  and  which  can  be  worked 
without  fatigue.  The  source  of  elec- 
tricity is  a  Trouve  bichromate  pile  (P, 
Fig.  23)  of  10  volts  and  2  amperes. 

The  oxygen  used  is  that  furnished  by 
the  Compagnie  Continental*  d'Oxygene. 
This  company  supplies  oxygen  free  from 
CO2,  but  containing  from  5  to  10  per 
cent  of  nitrogen.  This  means  of  supply 
simplifies  the  manipulation ;  it  also  ob- 
viates the  introduction  of  grease,  as 
happens  with  oxygen  compressed  by  a 
pump  in  the  laboratory. f 

The  cylinders  vary  in  size,  and  con- 
tain gas  at  a  pressure  of  120  atmospheres. 
The  average  content  is  about  1200  litres 
(about  40  cubic  feet)  compressed.  They 
have  a  uniform  top,  and  hence  the  copper  pipe  connecting  the 
bomb  with  the  manometer  and  the  cylinder,  once  adjusted, 
will  fit  all  of  them. 

The  method  of  working  is  very  simple. 

Weigh   i  gram   of  the   substance  to  be  tested  in  the  cap- 
sule.     Fasten  a  small  weighed  iron  wire  (English  gauge  26  or 
30)  to  the  electrode  and  to  the   support  of  the  capsule.      Put 
tiie  end  in  the  bomb  and  fasten  in  the  cover,  which  should  be 
:   id  in  a  vise.      Put  the  conical  stop-cock  in  connection  with 
•  oxygen  cylinder,  and  open  it  carefully  so  as  to  allow  suffi- 


FlG< 


*  The  evaporation  never  exceeds  a  gram  per  hour. 
f  This  gas  is  also  compressed  by  pumps  at  the  works.' 


6o  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FVELS. 

cient  oxygen  to  pass  in  for  the  required  pressure.  Close  trie 
cock  of  the  oxygen  cylinder,  carefully  close  the  conical  cock, 
and  break  the  connection  between  the  bomb  and  the  oxygen* 
cylinder.  The  substance,  especially  if  coal,  must  not  be  too. 
fine,  and  the  oxygen  must  flow  in  very  slowly  to  avoid  blow- 
ing any  of  it  from  the  capsule. 

The  bomb  thus  prepared  is  placed  in  the  calorimeter,  and: 
the  thermometer  and  agitator  adjusted.  Pour  in  the  previously 
weighed  water,  agitate  a  few  minutes  to  restore  equilibrium  of 
temperature,  and  commence  the  observations. 

The  experimenter  notes  the  temperature  minute  by  minute 
for  four  or  five  minutes,  and  determines  the  rate  of  the  ther- 
mometer before  the  combustion.  Then  he  joins  the  elec- 
trodes, and  the  combustion  begins  immediately,  almost  instan- 
taneously; but  the  transmission  of  heat  to  the  calorimeter 
takes  some  time. 

The  temperature  is  taken  one-half  minute  after  kindling,, 
then  at  the  end  of  the  minute,  then  at  each  minute  to  the 
time  when  the  thermometer  begins  to  lower  regularly.  This 
is  the  maximum.  The  observations  are  continued  for  a  few 
minutes  more  to  ascertain  the  rate  of  fall  of  temperature. 

We  now  have  all  the  elements  needed  for  the  calculation,, 
and  particularly  for  the  single  correction  necessary  to  make 
under  the  circumstances.  This  is  the  correction  for  loss  of 
heat  before  reaching  the  maximum  temperature,  which  is 
quite  small  considering  the  short  time  and  the  large  mass  in- 
volved. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  the  corrections  of  Regnault  and 
Pfaundler  with  this  apparatus.  Newton's  law  of  cooling  gives 
sufficiently  accurate  results,  even  in  rigorous  investigations. 
Special  experiments  made  to  determine  the  rate  of  cooling  of 
the  water  in  the  calorimeter,  when  the  apparatus  was  set  up  as 
usual,  showed  that  the  correction  may  be  regarded  as  follow- 
ing a  simple  law,  but  between  comparatively  large  limits,. 


MAHLER'S   CALORIMETER.  6t 

even  under  a  variation  of  several  hundred  grams  in  amount  of 
water  used. 
The  law*  is 

1.  The  decrease  in  temperature   observed  after  the  maxi- 
mum represents  the  loss  of  heat  of  the  calorimeter  before  the 
maximum    and   for  a  certain  minute,  with  the'condition  that 
the  mean  temperature  of  this  minute  does  not  differ  more  than 
one  degree  from  the  maximum. 

2.  If  the   temperature  considered  differs  more   than  one 
degree   but  less  than   two   degrees  from  the   maximum,   the 
number  representing   the   rate   of  decrease   dimminished    by 
0.005°  wiM  De  the  correction. 

The  two  preceding  remarks  suffice  in  all  cases  with  Mah- 
ler's apparatus.  The  variation  of  heat  in  the  first  half-minute 
after  kindling  may  also  be  corrected  by  the  same  law. 

The  agitator  must  be  worked  continually  during  the  ex- 
periment, being  careful  of  the  thermometer. 

When  through,  the  conical  valve  is  opened  and  then  the 
bomb.  Wash  the  inside  with  a  little  distilled  water  to  collect 
the  acids  formed.  The  proportion  of  acids  carried  away  by 
the  escaping  oxygen  at  the  opening  may  be  neglected.  De- 
termine the  acids  volumetrically. 

When  experimenting  with  substances  low  in  hydrogen  and 
incapable  of  furnishing  sufficient  water  to  form  nitric  acid,  it 
is  advisable  to  put  a  little  water  in  the  bomb,  or  hyponitric 
acid  would  be  formed. 

All  the  data  being  obtained,  we  proceed  to  the  calculation 
of  the  calorific  power  Q. 

Let  A  be  the  observed  difference  of  temperature ; 
a,  the  correction  for  cooling ; 
P,  the  weight  of  water  in  the  calorimeter; 
P,  the  equivalent  in  water  of   the   bomb  and   acces- 
sories; 

*  It  is  evident  that  the  rule  must  be  modified  for  apparatus  notablydif- 
ferent  from  that  used  bv  Mahler. 


62  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

p,  the  weight  of  the  nitric  acid,  HNO3; 
p'y  the  weight  of  the  iron  ; 

0.23  calorie,  the  heat  of  formation  of  I  gram  of  nitric  acid  ; 
and  1.6  calories,  the  heat  of  combustion  of  I  gram  of  iron. 
We  then  have 


In  testing  coal  in  this  manner  the  small  amount  of  sul- 
phuric acid  formed  will  be  reckoned  as  nitric  acid  without 
serious  error,  as  it  will  be  very  small.  The  heat  of  the  reac- 
tion is  1.44  calories  per  gram  of  H2SO4  formed. 

The  above  details  apply  to  liquids  as  well  as  solids.  Heavy 
liquids,  such  as  the  heavy  oils,  tars,  etc.,  are  weighed  directly 
into  the  capsule  ;  but  light,  easily  vaporized  liquids  must  be 
placed  in  pointed  glass  bulbs.  These  are  put  into  the  capsule, 
and  just  before  closing  the  bomb  are  broken  to  allow  access 
of  the  oxygen  to  the  liquid.  An  almost  perfect  combustion 
is  obtained  in  operating  with  a  great  variety  of  materials, 
nothing  but  cinders  remaining. 

To  determine  the  calorific  power  of  gases  the  exact  con- 
tent of  the  bomb  must  be  known.  Fill  it  first  with  gas. 
Then  work  the  air-pump  to  reduce  the  pressure  to  several 
millimetres  of  mercury,  and  then  fill  the  bomb  again  with  gas, 
under  atmospheric  pressure  and  at  the  laboratory  temperature. 
The  bomb  may  then  be  considered  full  of  pure  gas. 

The  method  of  working  with  gases  is  the  same  as  with 
solids  or  liquids.  The  operator  must  not  forget  the  need  of 
preventing  too  great  dilution  with  oxygen,  as  then  the  mix- 
ture will  cease  to  be  combustible.  With  illuminating  gas  5 
atmospheres  of  oxygen  is  sufficient,  and  with  producer  gas 
only  one-half  atmosphere,  as  shown  by  the  mercury  gauge,  is 
needed. 

The  gases  to  be  burnt  are  kept  in  gas-holders  over  water 
saturated  with  gas,  or  over  salt  water,  according  to  circum- 


MAHLER'S   CALORIMETER.  t>3 

stances,  and  are  saturated  with  aqueous  vapor  when  they  enter 
the  bomb.  From  the  calorific  capacity  of  the  different  parts 
we  obtain  that  of  the  whole,  the  glass  and  enamel  being 
omitted. 

Soft  steel 3945  grams.  3945  X  0.1097  =  432.76 

Brass 545       "  545XO.O93    =     50.68 

Mercury,    plati- 
num,and  lead     72        '  72X0.03       =      2.16 

Sum 485. 60  grams. 

The  coefficient  0.1097  is  the  one  adopted  by  the  College 
of  France,  from  Berthelot  and  Vielle's  experiments,  for  a  steel 
of  similar  quality.  We  have  given  above  (page  14)  the 
calculations  relative  to  the  valuation  in  water.  By  direct 
method  of  mixing  water  of  different  temperatures  Mahler 
found  the  equivalent  to  be  470  and  484,  and  assumed  the 
mean  481. 

By  the  method  of  burning  a  body  of  known  composition 
and  heat  of  combustion  he  obtained  with  naphthalin  9688 
calories — within  ^Vir  °f  tnat  giyen  by  Berthelot  (9692). 

The  equivalent  in  water  may  also  be  obtained  by  burning  I 
gram  of  known  composition  and  heat  of  combustion — naph- 
thalin for  instance.*  We  may  also,  after  Berthelot,  burn  a  sub- 
stance of  fixed  composition  at  two  trials  with  different  weights 
of  water  in  the  calorimeter.  Two  equations  are  thus  formed, 
from  which  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  body  used  is  elimi- 
nated, and  the  heat  sought  obtained. 

In  using  naphthalin  care  must  be  taken  to  weigh  it  only 
after  being  gently  fused  in  the  capsule.  It  is  so  light  that  if 
not  agglomerated  some  would  be  blown  away  by  the  oxygen. 
In  practice  the  tests  are  made  rapidly.  The  water  equivalent 
once  determined  may  be  verified  by  combustion  of  cane- 

*This  practical  method  has  the  advantage  of  automatically  eliminating 
causes  of  error. 


64  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

sugar  (CjjH,^,,),  for  which  Berthelot  and  Vielle  found  3961.7 
calories.      (Use  2  grams  for  a  combustion.) 

Examples  of  Calculations. 

Mahler  gives  several  types  of  calculations  from  his  notes* 
so  as  to  show  the  different  circumstances  which  may  occur. 
A.   Colza  Oil. — Elementary  analysis  showed — 

Carbon 77. 1 82  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 11.711    "      " 

Oxygen  and  nitrogen 11.107    "      " 

100.000    "     " 

Weight  taken,  I  gram.  Calorimeter  contained  2200  grams 
water.  Equivalent  in  water  of  bomb,  etc.,  481  grams. 
Pressure  of  oxygen,  25  atmospheres. 

The  apparatus  prepared  as  above  was  allowed  to  rest  a 
few  minutes  to  gain  equilibrium  of  temperature.  Then  com- 
menced noting  the  temperatures. 

PRELIMINARY  PERIOD. 


0  minute  .............   10.23' 

1  "      .............  10.23 


2  minutes  ............   10.24 

Rate  of  variation, 


3  minutes 10.24* 

4  tf       10.25 


5  IO-2S 

10.25  —  10.23 

-^  =  0.004°. 


The  electrodes  are  connected  and  the  combustion  begins. 

COMBUSTION  PERIOD. 
minutes 10.80°     7  minutes..  13.79° 


12.90 


8        "      ..  13. 84  maximum.* 


*  Prof.  Jacobus  recommends  plotting  the  temperatures  and  using,  not 
the  maximum,  but  the  one  at  the  instant  the  curve  of  cooling  becomes  a 
straight  line.  The  difference  is  slight,  but  important  in  some  cases. 


MAHLEX'S   CALORIMETER. 


PERIOD  AFTER  MAXIMUM. 


9  minutes  ..........   13.82 


10 
ii 


13.80 


12  minutes J3-79C 

13  "        13-78 


Rate  of  variation  after  maximum  is 


'3.84-13.78  =  0.012°. 


The  thermometer  observations  now  stopped. 
The  gross  variation  in  temperature  was 

13.84-  10.25  =  3-59°- 

The  corrections  are  as  follows : 

The  system   lost   during  the  minutes  (7,  8)  and  (6,  7)  a 
quantity  of  heat  corresponding  to  2at. 

2at  =  0.012  X  2  =  0.024°. 
In  the  half-minute  (5^,  6)  it  lost 

%(at  —  0.005)  =  0.0035°. 
But  during  the  half-minute  (5,  5^)  it  gained 


0.004  0 
=  0.002  . 


Consequently,  the  loss  for  the  minutes  (5,  6)  is 
0.0035  —  0.002  =  0.0015°. 


•  -.V"  •       OF   THB 

UNIVERSITY 


66 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


So  that  the   system  had  lost,    before  reaching  the  maximum 
temperature, 

0,024  -f-  0.0015  —  O«O255» 

which  must  be  added  to  the  3.59°  already  found,  making  the 
variation  in  temperature  3.615°,  neglecting  the  4th  decimal. 
The  quantity  of  heat  observed,  then,  is 

Q  =  (2200  +  481)3.615  —  2681  X  3.615  =  9.6918  calories. 
From  this  number  must  be  subtracted — 

1.  The  heat  of  formation  of  the  o.  13 

gram  of  HNO3 0.13     X  0.23  =  0.0299 

2.  The  heat  of  combustion  of  0.025 

gram  of  iron  wire 0.025X1.6    =0.04 


Total  subtraction 0.0699 

The  final  result  is,  then, 

9.6918  —  0.0699  —  9.6219  calories, 
or  for  i  kilogram  962 1. 9  calories,  equivalent  to  17319.4  B.T.U. 

TECHNICAL   EXAMINATION   OF   COAL. 

The  coal  taken  was  a  sample  of  Nixon's  coal  from  South 
Wales. 


Preliminary  Period. 

Combustion. 

After  Combustion. 

minutes,      degrees. 
0              15.20 
I               15.20 
2              15.20 
3             15-20 

#o  =  O 

minutes.        degrees. 
34               16.60 
4                  17.92 
5              18.32 
6               18.34 
maximum 
oxygen  pressure  25 
atmospheres 

minutes.        degrees. 
7            18  32 
8             18.30 
9            18.30 
10            18.30 
ii             18.26 
18.34—18.26 

MAHLER'S   CALORIMETER.  67 

Difference  of  gross  temperature 3. 140° 

Correction  (4,  5)  (5,  6)  0.016  X  2 0.032 

(4,  3i) 0-005 

(3,  3i : 


Corrected  difference  of  temperature 3. 177° 

or  3.18°. 

Calories. 

Heat  disengaged 3.18°.      3.18     X  2.681  =  8.5256 

Iron  wire 0.025.      0.025X1.6      =0.04 

Nitric  acid 0.15.        0.15     X  0.23    =0.0345 

0.0745 

For  one  gram 8.45 1 1 

or  8451.1  for  i  kilogram,  equivalent  to  15212  B.  T.  U. 

EXAMINATION   OF   A   GAS. 

Illuminating  gas  was  examined  under  the  following  con- 
ditions:* 

Barometric  pressure 761  mm.  (29.6  inches). 

Tension  of  aqueous  vapor 8      "     (0.314  inch). 

Temperature  of  laboratory 18.5°  C.  (65.3°  F.). 

Volume  of  bomb 654  fee.  (39.9  cubic  inches). 

"        "       "    dry  at  o°    and  760  mm. 

606  cc.       (37  cubic  inches). 

The  capsule  was  left  in  its  usual  place  in  the  bomb  to  pre- 
vent specks  of  iron  oxide  from  dropping  on  the  enamel  and 
injuring  it. 

*  See  Kroeker's  calorimeter  on  page  73. 
f  Exaciiy  653.9  cubic  centimetres. 


68 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


Preliminary 
Period. 

Combustion. 

After  Combustion. 

Remarks. 

minutes,  degrees, 
o        18.80 
I         18.80 
2         18.80 
3         18.80 
4         18.80 

#o  =  O.OO 

minutes,  degrees. 
4i        19-50 
5         20.00 
6         20.08 
7         20.81 
maximum 

minutes.        degrees. 
8               20.07 
9              20.06 
10            20.06 
II           20.055 

12                20.05 
20.08  —  20.05 

Pressure  of  oxygen 
5  atmospheres 
grams. 
Nitric  acid  0.06 
Iron  wire  0.025 

5 

Gross  difference  of  temperature,  A 1.28° 

Correction  as  usual,  a 0015 


Difference,  A  -\-  a 1-295° 

Calories.    Calories. 

Quantity  of  heat  observed,  1.295° 1.295X2.681=  3.47189 

Heat  of  HNO3  formation 0.06    X  0.23    =0.0138 

Heat  of  iron-wire  combustion 0.025  X  1.6      =  0.04 

0.0538 


Heat  of  combustion  of  606  cc.  at  o  and  760  mm 3.41809 

or  per  cubic  metre  at  760  mm.  5640,  or  633.6  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot. 

COMBUSTION  USING  AN  AUXILIARY  SUBSTANCE. 
Sometimes  an  unconsumed  residue  is  left  while  determin- 
ing the  heat  of  combustion  of  some  difficultly  burning  sub- 
stances, diamond  or  graphite  for  instance.  In  this  case  a 
combustible  auxiliary  is  used  to  obtain  complete  burning  of 
the  sample.  The  most  convenient  to  use  is  naphthalin  (C10H8), 
the  heat  of  combustion  of  which  is  exactly  known,  9692  cal- 
ories. 

Take  petroleum   coke,  which  is  nearly  allied  to  graphite. 
It  is  mixed  with  a  little  naphthalin  which  has  been  previously 
melted   at  a  low  heat  and   then  cooled.      After  cooling    the 
weight  of  the  naphthalin  is  taken. 
The  coke  analyzed  as  follows: 

Carbon 97-855  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 0.489    "       " 

Oxygen 1.196    " 

Nitrogen 0.260    "       " 

Ash..  0.200    "       " 


100.000 


MAHLER'S   CALORIMETER. 

The  data  obtained  are  as  follows: 


Preliminary 
Period. 

Combust-ion. 

After 
Combustion. 

Remarks. 

minutes,  degrees. 
O           22  05 

minutes,  degrees. 
el         22  60 

minutes,  degrees. 
IO        25  12 

Napthalin  

grams, 
o  034 

I            22  05 

6         24  20 

14.         2*1  O"i 

Iron  wire     .  •  

O  O25 

522  OJ. 

7            2ci  O2 

o  080 

<Z0  =  —  O.OO2 

8         25.13 
9         25.14 
maximum 

at  —  0.015 

Water  of  calorimeter. 
Equivalent  in  water.. 

2200. 
481. 

Difference  of  temperature 25. 14  —  22.04  —  3- IOO° 

Correction  for  minutes  (9,  8),  (8,  7),  (7,  6). .  0.015  X  3        =  0.045 

"             "  \  minute  (5^,  6) =  0.005 

"i        "        (5.  5i) =0.001 


Corrected  temperature  difference 


Then, 

Total  heat  developed  3.15° 3.15    X  2.681  = 

From  this  subtract 

Heat  due  to  naphthalin 0.034  X  9692  =  0.3295 

"        "     "  iron  wire 0.025  X  1.6     =  0.04 

"     "  HNO3 0.08    X  0.23=0.0184 


Heat  developed  by  the  combustion  of  the  coke 
or  8057.2  per  kilogram,  or  14503  B.  T.  U. 


8.4451 


0.3879 
8.0572 


When  the  combustible  tested  contains  hydrogen,  it  must 
be  remembered  that,  while  the  gas  in  the  bomb  is  dry  at  the 
beginning,  it  is  saturated  at  the  close  of  the  experiment.  In 
reality,  the  latent  heat  of  vaporization  of  the  small  quantity 
of  water  necessary  to  be  added  is  inconsiderable.  The  mean 
of  several  tests  was  5  in  8500  calories  observed,  or  only 
T^Q-Q'  Still,  when  we  test  gases,  which  cause  less  marked 
difference  in  temperature  than  solids  or  liquids,  we  must  allow 
for  this  heat  of  vaporization  to  be  exact. 

It  may  be  asked  if  any  allowance  will  be  made  for  the 
lieat  of  the  electric  current  at  the  moment  of  kindling.  The 


O  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

heat   developed  by  a  current  with  intensity  /  and    electro- 
motive force  E  is 


4.17 

t  being  reckoned  in  seconds.  If  /  was  appreciable,  this  should 
be  considered  at  least  in  exact  determinations.  But,  actually, 
/  is  very  small  ;  the  contact  is  hardly  established  before  the 
iron  is  burnt  and  the  contact  broken.* 

Mahler  cites  two  successive  tests  made  on  the  same  coal 
with  his  bomb  and  with  the  bomb  of  the  College  of  France, 
as  furnishing  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  his  method. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  : 

Scheurer-Kestner 

at  the  Mahler. 

College  of  France. 

Coal  (pure)  from  Bascoup,  Belgium....       8828  8813 

The  calculations  may  be  rendered  simpler  and  the  obser- 
vation more  rapid,  still  being  exact  enough  for  industrial  uses. 
Take  the  equation 

Q.  =  (A  +  a)(P  +  P')  -  (o.23/  +  i.6ff),    .     .     (i) 
arranging  the  terms  in  order  of  the  corrections 


(2) 
It  is  clear  that  the  calculation  of  the  calorimetric  operation 

*  In  exact  researches  this  heat  can  be  easily  determined  if  wished.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  measure  the  electromotive  force  in  volts.  Then  put 
an  amperemeter  in  the  line  which  connects  the  bomb  and  kindle  the  com- 
bustible as  usual.  The  displacement  of  the  needle  shows  the  intensity  of 
the  current  under  the  conditions  of  the  test,  and  also  the  time  during  which 

the  current  was  closed.     The  formula  -  /  will  give  the  quantity  of  heat 

4.17 

sought. 


ATWATER'S   CALORIMETER.  71 

reduces  to  the  determination  of  a  maximum  and  to  one  multi- 
plication if  we  have 

*(/>+/")  =  0.2  #  +  i.  6/.    ,'.     .     .     (3) 


Now  from  the  tests  made  we  readily  see  that  whatever 
value  a  may  take,  it  increases  with  the  quantity  of  heat  gen- 
erated in  the  bomb;  it  is  a  little  greater  when  the  external  air 
is  warmer  than  when  it  is  cooler  —  a  fact  which  may  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  influence  of  evaporation  on  the  cooling  of  the 
bath.* 

On  the  other  hand,  the  nitric  acid  appears  to  increase  with 
the  quantity  of  heat  generated,  and  tends  to  offset  the  cor- 
rection from  a.  In  short,  /'  is,  within  certain  limits,  at  the 
control  of  the  observer,  same  as  P'  .  We  consider  it  then 
possible  to  arrange  once  for  all  so  as  to  have  the  expression. 
(3)  sufficiently  close  for  industrial  purposes. 

This  can  be  done  with  Mahler's  apparatus.  Thus  for  oil 
of  colza  the  multiplication  A(P  -\-  P}  gave  9625  calories, 
which  is  within  g^Vo  of  the  final  number  obtained  after  all 
corrections  ;  with  the  Nixon's  coal  we  found  t  ;at  A(P-\-  P')  = 
8418  calories,  which  differed  ^¥  from  the  Correct  number; 
with  coal-gas  the  product  2681  X  1.28  =  3432  calories,  while 
the  corrected  result  was  3418,  or  ^^  difference. 

ATWATER'S    CALORIMETER. 

Prof.  Atwater  has  considerably  modified  the  bomb,  so 
that  it  seems  to  have  some  advantages  for  easy  working. 
Fig.  25  gives  a  sectional  view  of  it  in  the  calorimeter.  The 
steel  used  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  Hotchkiss  guns, 

*  The  rapidity  of  cooling  in  the  apparatus  employed  by  Mahler  was, 
according  to  experiments,  between  15°  and  20°  C. 


.   — ~.w5V.i      •  T o), 
To  being  the  temperature  at  which  cooling  ceases. 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


aikl  having  an  unusually  high  tenacity,  seems  admirably  fitted 
for  the  purpose.  A  represents  the  bomb,  C  the  screw-cap, 
B  the  cover,  which  is  placed  on  the  bomb  cylinder  and  held 
down  by  the  screw-cap.  "The  cover  is  provided  with  a  neck 
into  which  fits  a  cylindrical  screw  E,  holding  another  screw  H. 
On  the  side  of  the  neck  is  an  aperture  G,  between  the  lower 
end  of  D  and  the  shoulder.  In  D  is  a  washer  of  lead,  on 
which  the  lower  edge  of  E  fits.  By  opening  or  closing  the 
screw  F  the  narrow  passage  from  z  is  opened  or  closed.  The 
opening  is  used  for  admitting  oxygen  at  a  high  pressure 
through  a  narrow  passage  to  charge  the  bomb.  In  B  is  an 
.aperture  through  which  passes  the  platinum  wire  If,  which  is 

separated  from  the  metal  of  the  cover 
by  insulating  material.  Hard  vulcan- 
ized rubber  serves  very  well  for  this 
purpose.  Fastened  to  the  lower  side 
of  the  cover  is  another  platinum  rod,  /, 
between  which  and  H  an  electrical  con- 
nection is  made  with  a  very  fine  iron 
wire.  A  screw-ring  holds  the  small 
platinum  capsule,  in  which  the  sub- 
stance to  be  burned  is  placed.  At  KK 
are  ball-bearings  of  hard  steel  to  avoid 
friction  in  screwing  the  cap  down." 

"  The  large  cylinders  N  and  O  are 
made  of  indurated  fibre,  and  covered 
with  plates  of  vulcanized  rubber.  A 
stirrer  serves  for  equalizing  the  temper- 
ature of  the  different  portions  of  water 
PIG.  25.—  ATWATER  BOMB.  after  the  combustion  is  completed."* 

The  thermometer  used  is  by  Fuest 

of  Berlin,  graduated  to  ^  degree,  and  can  be  read  with  a 
magnify  ing-glass  to  y^nnr  degree. 


*Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater,  in  Bulletin  No.   21,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
1895,  pages  124  and  126. 


. 
UNI  VI 


KROEKER  'S   CAL  ORIME  TER. 


73 


The  apparatus  has  been  used  with  success  in  making  the 
very  numerous  determinations  made  by  Atwater  on  the  heats 
of  combustion  of  food-products  and  other  allied  organic  sub- 
stances. •-{,';  ;• 

KROEKER'S  CALORIMETER. 

Kroeker  has  recently  modified  the  bomb,  making  two  in- 
let channels  instead  of  one.  By  this  means  he  has  a  current, 
of  oxygen  gas  passing  in  at  one  opening  and  waste  gases 
passing  out  at  the  other.  It  can  thus  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose  that  a  Junker  calorimeter  is  used,  and  it  is  claimed 
with  just  as  satisfactory  results. 

The  cylinder  (Fig.  26)  is  bored  out  of  a  piece  of  Martin 
steel,  and  has  a  closely-fitting  screw-plug  for  cover,  the  depth 
of  the  screw  joint  being  2  5  mm.  The  walls 
of  the  cylinder  are  10  mm.  thick;  external 
diameter,  72  mm.  ;  internal  diameter,  52 
mm.  ;  height,  120  mm.  ;  contents,  200  cc. 
It  has  four  small  legs  on  the  under  side, 
which  support  it  and  keep  it  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  the  water  of  the  bath.  The 
entire  inside  surface  is  enameled,  or  prefer- 
ably platinized.  The  fuel,  in  the  form  of 
compressed  cylinders  weighing  one  gram, 
is  put  into  the  carrier,  ignited  as  usual, 
and  the  combustion  gases  collected  and 
examined. 

He  also  has  a  method  of  heating  the 
calorimeter  bomb   in  an  oil-bath  so  as  to 
expel   all   the  water  of  combustion  and  hy-     FlG  26.— KROEKER 
dration.      He    thus    obtains    data    for  cor-        CALORIMETERS  = 
rections   due   to  the  usual  method  of  determining  the  water, 
i.e.,  considering  the  water  as  condensed.  .   /if,      ;.f:.: 


CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 


HEMPEL  S    CALORIMETER. 

Hempel's  calorimeter  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
Germany  and  introduces  some  new  features. 

It  consists  (Fig.  260)  of  an  iron  tube  into  which  a  bottom 
about  15  mm.  thick  and  a  top  about  30  mm.  thick  are  screwed 
and  fastened  with  hard  solder.  The  chamber  capacity  is  2  50  cc. 


FIG.  26a.  FIG.  263. 

HEMPEL  CALORIMETER. 


and  will  resist  a  pressure  of  25  atmospheres.  It  is  closed  by  a 
head-piece  (Fig.  26b).  This  has  a  screw-valve  a,  an  insulated 
wire  </,  and  a  perforated  cup  e  supported  by  the  platinum 
wires//.  The  depression  g  contains  mercury  and  serves  for 
battery  contact.  The  wire  d  has  a  conical  enlargement  o  and 
is. wedged  into  the  opening  in  the  head-piece,  i  is  a  lead 
washer  around  the  valve-rod  a. 

The  coal  is  crushed  to  powder  and  then  formed  into  small 
cylinders  by  means  of  a  screw-press.      This  is  put  in  the  cup 


WALTHER-HEMPEL   BOMB. 


74* 


and  ignited  by  the  wires  ff.     The  oxygen  is  supplied  under 
a  pressure,  usually  about  1 5  atmospheres. 

The  apparatus  can  be  made  ready  in  an  hour,  and  the  test 
generally  lasts  fifteen  minutes. 


WALTHER-HEMPEL   BOMB. 

This  consists  of  a  small  cylinder  of  33  cc.  capacity  (Fig.  27), 
bored  out  of  white  cast  iron  and  enameled  inside.  The  walls 
are  2  millimetres  thick,  and  it  is  strong  enough  to  resist  eight 
times  the  pressure  generally  used.  The  cover 
is  fastened  on  by  means  of  a  screw-clamp, 
and  through  it  passes  the  slanting  opening  a, 
having  the  electric  wire-carrier  insulated  by 
a  caoutchouc  sheath.  To  the  wire  at  the  end 
of  this  sheath  is  attached  a  platinum  wire  for 
kindling  the  combustible.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  cover  is  the  oxygen  tube  d.  The 
platinum  wire  c  is  attached  to  the  under  side 
of  the  cover,  and  supports  the  combustible- 
carrier  and  its  little  fire-clay  cylinder  e. 

The  fuel  is  made  into  small  cylinders  by 
compression,  put  into  the  fire-clay  cylinder, 
and  ignited  by  the  electric  spark.  The 
products  of  combustion  are  collected  and 
weighed  or  measured  :  the  water  partly  in  the 
bomb  and  partly  by  means  of  a  calcium  chlo- 
ride  tube ;  the  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  are 
determined  by  titration  with  -j-J-g-  normal  alkali, 
and  afterwards  separated  if  deemed  necessary, 
to  be  capable  of  use  the  same  as  a  large  one.  A  full  descrip- 
tion of  it  is  given  in  the  Berliner  Bericht  for  January,  1897. 


FIG.  27. 
WALTHER-  ;. 
HEM  PEL  BOMB 

It  is  claimed 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 
'    '  WITZ'S  CALORIMETER. 

Aime  Witz  has  modified  the  calorimetric  bomb  so  as  to 
permit  its  use  for  gases.  The  eudiometric  calorimeter,  as  he 
calls  it  (Fig.  27^),  consists  of  a  steel  cylinder  A,  3.54  inches 
high,  2.34  inches  inside  diameter,  and  0.08  inch  thick,  contain- 
ing 15.55  cubic  inches.  It  has  two  covers,  C,  C\  fastened  to  the 
cylinder,  hermetically  sealing  it  by  means  of  an  oiled  paper 
gasket.  The  upper  one  carries  the  spark-exciter  e.  The  other 
cover  has  a  valve  D,  opening  into  a  chamber  about  I  inch 
diameter.  By  means  of  the  internal  curved  surface  of  this 
cover  the  cylinder  can  be  completely  emptied  of  gas  and  filled 
with  mercury. 

To  use  the  bomb  it  is  filled  with  mercury  and  the  mixture 
of  air  and  combustible  gas  introduced  by  means  of  a  conical 
glass  gas-holder.  The  gas  escaping  from  this  forces  out  its 
bulk  of  mercury,  and  after  the  proper  readings  it  is  placed  in  a 
calorimeter  vessel  containing  about  a  litre  of  water  and  the  gas 
exploded. 

Professor  Witz  has  obtained  very  good  results,  and  has 
used  it  in  many  hundred  determinations. 

ICE-CALORIMETERS. 

Considerable  interest  is  attached  to  the  ice-calorimeter* 
It  was  the  first  kind  used,  and  although  its  use  in  heat  deter- 
minations has  been  displaced  by  the  more  recent  forms,  yet 
there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  physicists 
to  return  to  it.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  Schulla 
and  Wartha  and  von  Than  some  years  ago,  and  Louguinine 
at  the  present  time. 

Its  determinations  are  based  on  the  difference  of  volume 
between  ice  and  ice-water.  I  gram  of  ice  has  a  volume  of 
1.09082  cc.  (Bunsen),  while  I  gram  of  water  at  the  same  tem- 
perature has  a  volume  of  1.00012  cc.  By  the  melting  of  ice 
using  79.4  gram-calories,  a  reduction  of  0.0907  cc.  in  vol- 


2CE    CALORIMETERS. 


74* 


urne  occurs.      Hence   I    calorie  is  equivalent  to   a   reduction. 

Of    yfy     CC. 

The  first  use  of  the  ice-calorimeter  was  by  Vilke,  a 
Swedish  physicist.  Following  him  came  Lavoisier  and  La 
Place,  who,  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  carried  on  their 
classic  researches  on  heat.  Hermann,  in  1834,  improved  their 
apparatus,  and  based  his  determinations  on  the  change  in 
volume  of  the  ice  and  water  instead  of  on  the  weight  of  the 
melted  ice. 


FIG.  2ja. — HERMANN 
ICE-CALORIMETER. 


FIG.  27^.—  WITZ'S 
CALORIMETER. 


HERMANNS     CALORIMETER. 

Hermann's  apparatus  (Fig.  27^)  consisted  of  a  glass  cylin- 
der A,  having  a  brass  screw  at  the  top.  On  this  was  fastened 
a  brass  cover,  sealing  it  hermetically.  This  cover  carried  a 
thin  brass  tube,  B,  running  into  the  cylinder.  A  graduated 
glass  tube  C  also  passed  into  the  cylinder,  the  divisions  being 
calibrated.  By  means  of  the  plunger  in  tube  D  the  water- 


CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 


level  of  A  is  adjusted  at  the  commencement  of  the  test.  The 
whole  apparatus  is  enclosed  in  a  protected  box  to  prevent 
radiation. 

When  used,  the  cylinders  A  and  B  contain  ice  and  water; 
£,  containing  the  thermometer,  is  filled  with  the  substance  to 
be  tested.  The  proper  temperature  is  given  E,  and  it  is 
quickly  put  into  place  and  allowed  to  cool  to  zero. 

By  the  action  of  the  heat  of  E  part  of  the  ice  is  melted, 
thereby  changing  the  volume  of  the  contents  of  A  and  the 
level  of  the  water  in  C. 

HERSCHEL'S  CALORIMETER. 

Herschel  devised  a  calorimeter  in  1847  to  use  in  his  work 
on  specific  heat.  It  depended  on  the  expansion  of  the  mix- 
ture of  ice  and  water. 

BUNSEN'S  CALORIMETER. 

This  was  an  improvement  of  those  of  his  predecessors.    It 
consisted  of  a  glass-tube,  a  (Fig.  27^),  fused  into  a  cylindrical 
•>  SA  bulb,  b,  to  which   is   attached   an   open  bent 

-tube,  c.     At    the   upper  end  of  this  tube  is 
attached   a  rim   top   of  iron,  d.     The   inner 
y|_^  .JA  tube   from   a  to  /*  and  .the   containing  bulb 

from   ft  to  A,  are  filled   with   air-free  water. 
The  lower  part   of  the  apparatus  is  filled  to 
the  iron  rim  with  mercury  containing  no  air. 
The  water  in  tube  a  is  frozen  and  the  whole 
apparatus  placed  in  a  box  of  snow.    A  gradu- 
/?    ated  glass  tube  s  is  passed  through  a  cork  into  c. 
To  use  this  calorimeter,  the  substance  to 
be  tested  is  heated  and  dropped  into  a,  the 
open   end   being  immediately   closed.       The 
FIG.  27<r.— BUNSEN    change  in  volume  was  transmitted  and  meas- 

ICE-CALORIMETER.  . 

ured  by  the  mercury.  The  tube  a  weighed 
40  to  50  grams,  and  about  0.35  gram  was  melted,  causing  the 
mercury  to  move  some  400  divisions. 


SCHULLA    AND    WARTHA    CALORIMETER. 


SCHULLA  AND  WARTHA  CALORIMETER. 

This  was  described  in  1877  in  Wiedemann's  Annalen. 
They  placed  the  calorimeter  (Fig.  27^)  in  a  metal  vessel  /, 
containing  distilled  water  and  having  from  2  to  3  cm.  of  ice 


FIG.  27<£ — SCHULLA  AND  WARTHA  ICE-CALORIMETER. 

on  the  sides  and  bottom.  On  putting  the  calorimeter  into 
this  vessel  the  surface  of  the  water  was  covered  with  ice 
spicules  which  soon  melted  in  the  distilled  water.  The 
whole  was  hermetically  sealed  with  a  metal  cover  having  two 
openings  for  the  calorimeter-tube  and  the  tube  leading  to 
the  measuring-apparatus.  The  whole  was  then  enclosed 
in  a  wooden  box,  so  that  it  was  surrounded  by  a  thick 
layer  of  ice.  They  weighed  the  mercury  instead  of  measur- 
ing it. 

In  determining  the  heat  of  combustion  of  hydrogen  they 
used  purified  electrolytic  gas  and  burnt  it  in  a  special  burner. 
The  results  were  very  satisfactory. 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


VON  THAN'S  CALORIMETER. 

Von  Than  made  an  improvement  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  melting-point  of  ice  sinks  under  pressure.  The 
point  determined  when  the  ice  is  under  pressure  from  a 
column  of  mercury  is  too  low,  and  a  correction  must  be 
made. 

His  apparatus  (Fig.  27^) 'was  19.67  inches  high,  the  inner 


FIG  27^. — VON  THAN'S  ICE-CALORIMETER. 

vessel,  a,  having  a  capacity  of  13.42  cubic  inches,  and  was 
closed  with  a  caoutchouc-lined  brass  ring.  This  was  fastened 
to  another  vessel  called  the  "  thermostat,"  which  was  simply 
a  Bunsen  calorimeter  rilled  with  a  2%  solution  of  common 
salt.  This  is  contained  in  a  wooden  box  filled  with  ice, 
having  a  stop-cock  at  the  bottom  to  draw  off  the  melted 
water.  By  this  means  the  apparatus  was  always  ready 
for  use. 


D  IE  TERICI  'S   CAL  ORIME  TER. 

With  this  calorimeter  the  pressure  can  be  changed  so  that 
only  melting  due  to  actual  heat  is  possible.  In  order  to 
do  this  the  side  tube  of  the  "  thermostat  "  is  connected  by 
a  rubber  tube  to  a  vessel,  ft  which  can  be  raised  or  lowered 
and  the  pressure  measured. 

In  determining  the  heat  of  combustion  of  hydrogen  he 
worked  under  constant  volume.  His  burner  was  made  of  a 
glass  tube  and  nearly  filled  the  inner  chamber,  a.  The 
products  of  combustion  passed  out  through  phosphoric 
anhydride.  By  weighing  this  he  determined  the  quantity 
of  water  generated.  His  results  were  ±  0.04$  of  the  correct 
amount. 

DIETERICI'S   CALORIMETER. 

Dieterici's  calorimeter  (Fig.  27 f)  was  quite  large.  The 
inner  vessel  was  nearly  8  inches  long.  The  tube,  S,  through 


FIG.  277. — DIETERICI'S  ICE-CALORIMETER. 


which  the  mercury  flowed  has  a  ground  joint  with  a  mer- 
cury seal.  K  is  a  wooden  box  in  two  parts,  filled  with 
ice,  containing  a  porcelain  vessel,  P,  filled  with  distilled 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

water,  which  is  frozen  on  the  walls.  In  this  is  placed 
the  calorimeter,  suspended  on  a  fulcrum  by  means  of  the 
tube  5. 

He  preferred  a  glass  or  porcelain  vessel  to  a  metal  one,  as 
undergoing  no  change  from  oxidation. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
SOLID     FUELS. 

COAL. 

AMONG  the  first  careful  tests  ever  made,  to  determine  the 
heat  value  of  different  kinds  of  coal,  are  those  made  in  1843  and 
1844  by  Prof.  W.  R.  Johnson  for  the  U.  S.  Navy.  He 
analyzed  and  tested  all  the  kinds  obtained  from  the  United 
States  and  England,  which  were  then  in  use  by  the  navy. 
At  the  time  they  were  made  the  calorimetric  determinations 
were  not  considered  as  of  the  importance  they  are  now, 
and  his  tests  were  limited  to  determining  the  evaporative 
power  of  the  coals.  Mr.  W.  Kent  reviewed  them  in  the 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  1892,  and  showed  that  up  to 
the  time  of  the  experiments  nothing  comparable  with  them 
had  been  attempted,  and  that  in  many  respects  they  compare 
favorably  with  work  done  to-day. 

In  1857  Morin  and  Tresca  made  numerous  determina- 
tions of  the  calorific  power  of  coal  and  wood,  and  in  1853 
they  published  a  work  on  "  Fuels  and  their  Calorific  Power, "" 
in  which  they  make  many  recommendations  for  more  accurate 
work.  They  wrote:  "  It  would  be  extremely  important  if 
experiments  with  the  calorimeter  could  be  made  on  most  of 
the  fuels,  by  methods  similar  to  those  used  by  Favre  and  Sil- 
bermann." 

In  1868  such  experiments  were  made  by  Scheurer-Kest- 
ner,  and  continued  by  him  later  with  the  aid  of  Me.unier- 
Dollfus.  They  based  their  calculations  on  pure  coal,  i.e.,  with 
moisture  and  ash  deducted.  This  method,  which  has  been 

75 


76  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

followed  by  many  others,  seems  very  logical,  as  it  facilitates 
comparison  of  different  fuels  by  reducing  them  to  the  same 
basis.  Enormous  errors  due  to  comparison  of  values  not 
comparable  are  thus  obviated.  Coal  having  5  per  cent  im- 
purity has  been  compared  with  coal  having  only  I  per  cent, 
no  account  being  made  for  the  difference,  and  of  course  very 
erroneous  and  misleading  deductions  obtained. 

It  is  a  simple  task  for  the  engineer  or  the  workman  even,  to 
determine  approximately  the  proportions  of  moisture  and  ash 
as  given  on  the  grate.  Knowing  these  proportions  and  the 
heat  of  combustion  of  the  pure  coal,  they  can  render  a  state- 
ment of  the  practical  working.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  ex- 
perimenter is  limited  in  such  way  that  he  neglects  the  com- 
position of  the  coal,  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  conjecture  as 
to  its  intrinsic  or  comparative  value;  still  less  can  he  judge  of 
it  as  a  steam  generator. 

In  1879  Bunte  made  some  experiments  at  Munich,  using  a 
special  apparatus  devised  by  him  for  the  occasion,  which 
was  part  calorimeter  and  part  boiler.  The  tests  were  pub- 
lished in  Dingler's  Polytechnisches  Journal.  Some  of  the 
results  are  included  in  the  tables  of  this  book. 

Since  then  numerous  tests  have  been  made  on  nearly  all 
the  known  coals.  A  collection  of  all  available  ones  from 
which  the  desired  data  could  be  obtained  will  be  found  far- 
ther on. 

The  question  as  to  the  actual  evaporative  effect  of  each 
coal  can  be  settled  only  by  actual  tests  made  on  the  boiler 
intended  for  use,  as  the  same  coal  will  give  slightly  different 
results  with  different  kinds  of  boilers ;  also,  and  in  a  more 
marked  degree,  with  different  methods  of  firing  and  handling. 
The  results  in  the  tables  cannot  be  taken,  then,  as  absolute 
for  all  boilers  under  all  circumstances,  but  they  can  be 
depended  on  for  comparison  of  the  different  fuels  with  the 
same  boiler  and  under  proper  conditions. 

The  manner  in  which  a  coal  acts  under  heat   in  a  closed 


SOLID    FUELS. 


17 


vessel  is  a  most  important  indication,  taken  in  connection 
with  its  elementary  composition.  Gruner  gave  his  opinion 
that  the  real  value  of  a  coal  could  be  determined  better  from 
its  proximate  than  from  the  ultimate  composition.  Speaking 
of  the  Loire  coal,  he  says: 

"  The  proximate  analysis,  which  consists  in  distilling  coal 
in  a  retort  and  incinerating  the  residue,  allows  direct  valu- 
ation of  the  agglomerating  power  as  well  as  the  nature  and 
proportion  of  the  ash.  Further,  it  is  easy  to  show,  especially 
with  the  aid  of  the  work  of  Scheurer-Kestner  and  Meunier- 
Dollfus,  that  the  calorific  power  varies  with  the  proportion  of 
fixed  carbon  left  by  distillation.  This  is  true  at  least  for  all 
coal  properly  so  called,  but  not  always  true  for  anthracite 
and  lignite."  * 

Gruner  formed  the  following  table  based  on  the  quantity 
and  nature  of  the  coke  furnished  and  the  calorific  power.  He 
held,  from  the  results  of  S.-K.  and  M.-D.,  that  if  the  heat 
value  of  a  coal  increases  with  the  proportion  of  fixed  carbon 


Industrial 

Per  Cent 

Calorific  Power. 

Classes  or  Types 
of  Coal 
properly  so  called. 

Per  Cent 
Coke  to 
Pure  Coal. 

of 
Volatile 
Matter 
in 

Nature  and 
Appearance 
of  Coke. 

CaloriticPower, 
Actual. 
Calories. 

Water  at  o° 
Vaporized  at 
112°  per  Kilo  of 
Pure  Coal 

Pure  Coal. 

Burnt, 

in  Kilograms. 

i.  Dry     coals    with  j 
long  flame,          f 

55  to  66 

45  to  40 

i  Powdery  or  J 
slightly      [ 
coked.       1 

8000  to  8500 

6.7  to  7.5 

Completely"] 

2.  Fat     coals     with  ) 

|   agglomer-    | 

long  flame  (gas  V 
coals),                  ) 

60  to  68 

40  to  32 

Iated,  often-  J- 
er  caked,     | 

8500  to  8800 

7.6  to  8.3 

but  porous.  J 

3.  Fat   coals,    prop-] 
erly    so    called  1 
("  blacksmith  "  [ 
coals),                   J 

68  to  74 

32  to  36 

I  Caked  and  ) 
-(  more  or  less  V 
(       puffy.       } 

8800  to  9300 

8.4  to  9.2 

4.  Fat     coals     with  ) 
short    flam  e  V 
(coking  coals),    ) 

74  to  82 

26  to  18 

(      Coked,      I 
{    compact.     > 

9300  to  9600 

9.2  to  10 

5.  Lean      coals      or  ) 
anthracite,          ) 

82  to  90 

18  to  10 

f     Slightly    ] 
J       coked, 
|      oftener      j 

9200  to  9500 

9.0  to  9.5 

I  powdery.   J 

*  Annales  des  Mines,  1878,  vol.  iv. 


78  CALORIflC  POWER    OP   FUELS. 

or  coke  formed,  this  increase  is  produced  gradually  by  cutting: 
off  the  lean  coals  and  dividing  the  fat  coals  into  three  classes. 
— gas,  forge,  and  coking. 

Bearing  on  the  advisability  of  having  proximate  analyses, 
as  well  as  ultimate  analyses  of  coal,  is  the  question  recently 
brought  up  by  Mr.  Kent,  regarding  the  ratio  of  hydrogen  and 
carbon  in  coal.  In  discussing  the  results  of  Lord  and  Haas' 
determinations  of  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  coals,  he  thought  he 
had  discovered  the  ratio,  that  the  fixed  carbon  is  nearly  equal 
to  the  total  carbon  minus  five  times  the  available  hydrogen  in 
bituminous  coals,  and  minus  three  times  the  hydrogen  in 
semi-bituminous  ones.  He  gave  a  table  showing  results 
which  support  the  hypothesis. 

LIGNITE. 

From  an  industrial  standpoint  lignite  is  of  considerable 
importance.  It  occurs  in  most  countries,  and  is  used  in  a 
great  many  for  domestic  and  manufacturing  purposes. 

As  a  fuel  it  is  inferior  to  coal,  being  less  distantly 
removed  from  woody  fibre,  and  hence  contains  more  hydro- 
gen and,  usually,  considerable  water.  Most  of  the  latter, 
however,  dries  out  on  exposure  to  the  air.  In  some  cases 
as  much  as  40  or  50  per  cent  of  water  is  found  in  the 
freshly  mined  lignite,  of  which  at  times  20  per  cent  remains 
when  air-dried.  This  greatly  affects  its  value  as  fuel ;  still 
it  is  used  in  many  of  the  V/estern  States,  and  also  in 
Europe.  In  some  European  localities,  when  thoroughly 
dried  and  compressed  into  blocks,  especially  in  Italy  and 
Austria,  it  is  used  as  fuel  for  producing  gas  and  for  evapo- 
rating, with  good  results.  In  Austria  it  is  burnt  without 
any  preparation,  except  drying  in  the  air  for  heating  salt- 
pans. ^ 

The  amount  of  ash  varies  exceedingly,  being  in  some 
cases  as  low  as  0.9  per  cent,  and  in  others  as  high  as  58  per 


SOLID    FUELS.  79 

cent.  It  even  varies  in  the  same  locality  and  in  the  same 
bed.  In  burning  lignite  there  is  considerable  loss  in  the  waste 
gases  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  air  introduced,  and 
also  from  the  moisture  carried  off  from  the  fuel. 

Brix  published  the  following  results  with  dried  lignite : 

Water  Evap-     Per  cent 
orated.  Ash. 

Lignite  of  Aussig,  Bohemia 5.8  pounds  15.0 

"        "  Perleberg,     "        5.6        "  6.0 

"        "  Goldfuchs  n.  Frankfort...  5.5        "  9.1 

"  Rauen 5.4        "  6.3 

Bunte  used  two  kinds  of  lignite  in  boiler-tests,  and  gives 
the  following  results : 

Neusattel.       Chodan. 

Calories  in  steam 42.8  49.2 

"        "gases 19.6  21. o 

"        "  aqueous  vapor 9.2  8.7 

"        "ash 9.0  6.1 

"        unaccounted  for 19.4  15.0 

The  grate  used  was  a  step  grate  (Treppen-Rost). 

The  lignite  used  on  the  railways  in  Italy  contained  i']> 
per  cent  of  water,  and  gave  a  yield  of  heat  equal  to  one  half 
its  weight  of  coal. 

Analogous  to  the  lignites  are  certain  shales  or  fossils 
carrying  bitumen.  They  are  sometimes  termed  boghead 
cannel,  bituminous  schist,  etc.  They  are  distilled  in  some 
localities  for  oil,  but  are  not  much  used  as  fuel. 

Bunte  determined  the  heat  of  combustion  of  a  sample 
from  Australia,  and  analyzed  one  from  Scotland. 

Carbon.      Hydrogen.     O  -j-  N.       Calories. 

Boghead  shale,  Australia.   83.17         10.04        6. 79        9134 
Scotch  Boghead 81.54         11.62         6.84 


"SO  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

Scotch  Boghead  generally  contains  18  to  24  per  cent  of 
ash.  From  its  analysis  as  above,  its  heat  of  combustion 
should  be  near  that  of  the  other  one  given. 

PEAT. 

Peat  is  formed  by  the  agglomeration  of  vegetable  debris, 
and  retains  a  large  amount  of  water,  which  will  not  separate 
without  heat.  Its  composition  varies  but  little  from  that  of 
wood,  the  principal  difference  being  less  oxygen  and  more 
carbon. 

The  composition  may  be  represented  by — 

Carbon 60 

Hydrogen 6 

Oxygen  and  nitrogen 34 

100 

The  heat  of  combustion  is  lower  than  that  of  coal  or 
lignite,  as  might  be  expected.  The  quantity  of  hydrogen 
exceeds  that  necessary  to  form  water  with  the  oxygen. 

It  is  usually  dried  before  using,  and  when  dry  becomes 
quite  porous.  It  carries,  however,  in  this  state  some  10  to 
1 5  per  cent  of  water,  which  can  be  expelled  only  by  artificial 
means.  Large  quantities  of  it  are  converted  into  charcoal  in 
special  kilns,  and,  where  the  large  amount  of  ash  is  no  objec- 
tion, it  makes  a  good  fuel.  It  cannot  be  used  for  metallurgical 
purposes  on  account  of  its  friability.  From  30  to  40  per 
cent  of  its  weight  is  left  in  the  charcoal  as  carbon,  but  at  the 
same  time  the  ash  increases  to  15  to  25  per  cent,  and  even 
more.  This  consists  principally  of  phosphates  and  sulphates, 
with  very  little  carbonates ;  hence  it  is  not  as  apt  to  clinker 
as  other  fuel  ashes. 

Brix  obtained  with  peat  an  evaporative  power  of  5.11 
pounds  of  water.  The  peat  used  was  from  Flatow,  and 
contained  10.7  percent  of  ash.  Another,  from  Buchfeld-Neu- 
langen,  contained  1.2  per  cent  of  ash,  and  gave  5.12  pounds 


SOLID   FUELS.  8 1 

evaporated.  Noury,  using  a  special  grate,  obtained  from  the 
Alsace  peats  4  to  5  pounds  evaporation  (ashes  deducted). 

Bunte  analyzed  the  gases  produced  by  the  combustion  of 
peat  on  the  hearth  of  a  salt-pan,  and  found,  carbonic  acid  13, 
oxygen  6.4,  nitrogen  80.6. 

Karsten  says  that  2\  pounds  of  peat  are  equal  to  one  of 
coal.  In  some  experiments  made  at  St.  Petersburg  a  fire- 
grate of  32  square  feet  and  696  square  feet  of  boiler  heating 
surface  was  used.  The  peat  was  compact,  hand-moulded  into 
4-inch  balls,  and  dried  till  moisture  did  not  exceed  14  per  cent. 
4.26  pounds  of  coal  were  evaporated  for  I  of  peat. 

Crookes  and  Rohrig,  in  their  "  Metallurgy,"  say:  "One 
pound  of  dry  turf  will  evaporate  6  pounds  of  water.  Now  in 
I  pound  of  turf,  as  usually  found,  there  are  £  pound  of  dry 
turf  and  J  pound  of  water.  The  J  pound  can  evaporate  4^ 
pounds  of  water;  but  out  of  this  it  must  first  evaporate  the  J 
pound  of  water  contained  in  its  mass,  and  hence  the  water 
boiled  away  by  such  turf  reduces  to  4^  pounds.  The  yield 
is  here  reduced  30  per  cent,  a  proportion  which  makes  all  the 
difference  between  a  good  fuel  and  one  almost  unfit  for  use. 
When  turf  is  dried  in  the  air  under  cover  it  still  retains  -£$  of 
its  weight  of  water,  which  reduces  its  calorific  power  12  per 
cent;  I  pound  of  such  turf  evaporates  5^  pounds  of  water." 

COKE. 

Coke  usually  met  with  is  from  three  sources:  from  gas- 
coal,  and  made  in  gas-retorts;  from  gas  or  ordinary  bituminous 
coal,  and  made  in  special  ovens;  from  petroleum,  and  made 
by  carrying  the  distillation  of  the  residuum  to  a  red  heat. 

Coke  from  gas-works  is  usually  softer  and  more  porous 
than  the  other  kinds,  burns  more  readily,  but  does  not  give 
as  intense  a  heat.  It  has  been  used  considerably  for  domestic 
heating,  and  in  factories  where  a  high  heat  is  not  needed 
but  where  a  smokeless  fuel  is  desirable.  The  oven  coke  is 
usually  in  large  columnar  masses  of  a  close  texture  and  quite 


82 


CALORIfIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 


hard.  It  has  a  dead  gray-black  color  and  is  not  susceptible 
of  polish.  It  is  principally  used  in  furnaces  requiring  a 
blast,  although  limited  quantities  of  it  have  been  used  in 
domestic  heating,  for  which  purpose  it  must  be  broken  up 
much  finer  than  its  usual  size.  Petroleum  coke  is  generally 
in  large  irregular  lumps,  perforated  with  cavities  of  greater  or 
less  size,  the  interior  of  which  is  usually  quite  smooth  and 
shining.  Its  color  is  blacker  than  that  of  gas  or  oven  coke, 
and  its  hardness  intermediate.  It  is  used  principally  for  mak- 
ing electric  carbons,  although  considerable  quantities  are  used 
for  fuel. 

With  the  exception  of  gas-coke  very  little  use  is  made  of 
this  fuel  for  steaming,  the  fire  being  too  intense  locally,  and 
hence  very  apt  to  burn  out  the  boiler  directly  over  it.  In  all 
cases  plenty  of  air  is  needed  to  keep  up  the  combustion,  which 
is  also  a  drawback  for  steaming  purposes.  For  metallurgical 
furnaces  it  is  different.  Here  it  is  almost  the  ideal  fuel,  giv- 
ing an  intense  reducing  heat  at  just  the  part  of  the  furnace 
where  most  needed.  It  has  been  used  in  iron  furnaces  for 
years,  and  is  still  the  favorite  fuel.  It  is  superior  to  anthracite, 
as  it  has  no  tendency  to  splinter  and  crack  with  the  heat,  and 
bears  its  burden  very  well.  Of  course  this  does  not  apply  to 
ordinary  gas-coke,  which  crushes  easily. 

Coke  is  essentially  carbon,  and  the  mineral  portions  of  the 
coal  from  which  it  is  made.  It  contains  small  quantities  of 
hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  tables.  The 
percentage  of  these,  however,  is  very  low,  so  that  the  cal- 
culated and  observed  heat-units  are  usually  within  the  limits 
of  error,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Name. 

C. 

H. 

N. 

Loss. 

Calories 
observed. 

Calories 
calculated. 

Authority. 

Saarbruck  . 

08.04. 

O.71} 

1.2^ 

82OO 

822Q 

Bunte 

Petroleum  coke 
Graphite 

98-05 
08.08 

0.50 
O.O2 

0.25 

1.20 

8057 
7QOI 

8151 
8054 

Mahler 
Berthelot 

SOLID    FUELS. 


WOOD  CHARCOAL. 

Wood  charcoal  always  contains  quantities  of  hydrocarbons 
which  have  resisted  the  action  of  heat.  That  called  forest 
charcoal,  made  by  burning  in  heaps,  is  the  most  charged  with 
them ;  that  obtained  from  distillation  of  wood  in  retorts  coi> 
tains  less. 

The  heat  of  combustion  is  very  variable.  According  to 
Berthier*  commercial  wood  charcoal  contains  10  per  cent  of 
volatile  matters  and  2  per  cent  of  ash  (carbon  80  to  90,  hy- 
drogen 1.5—4). 

Pure  wood  charcoal  was  first  tested  calorimetrically  by 
Favre  and  Silbermann,  and  since  then  by  several  experi- 
menters. To  obtain  it  pure  it  was  calcined  strongly  and 
treated  with  chlorine  to  remove  all  traces  of  hydrogen.  In, 
this  state  wood-charcoal  produces  under  constant  pressure 
8080  calories,  F.  &  S.,  or  8100  S.-K.  &  M.-D. ;  with  con- 
stant volume  Berthelot  and  Petit  obtained  8137  calories. 

Several  years  ago  Berthier  pointed  out  that  half-burnt 
charcoal,  charbon  ronx  or  Rothkohle,  was  superior  in  combus- 
tible content  to  that  perfectly  burnt.  Sauvage  has  confirmed 
this,  and  gives  the  following  results : 


TOO  Ibs.    of  wood  (^ 
charred  for  ) 

3  hours. 

4  hours. 

5  hours. 

5$  hours. 

6$  hours. 

Mound 
Charcoal. 

6s  A  Ibs. 

53  o  Ibs 

47  o  Ibs 

41  5  Ibs 

•7Q     T     IKc 

17  2  Ibs 

loocu.  ft.  measured 

86  cu.  ft. 

76  cu.  ft. 

58  cu.  ft. 

55  cu.  ft. 

52  cu.  ft. 

33  cu.  ft. 

and 
cubic  foot  wood  contained  of  combustible  matter     908  parts. 


*4        "3  hours'  heating  " 

« 

883 

" 

«                           (    <                A                    <    (                                      «    (                                   <    < 

" 

904 

A* 

<(                           '    '                C                    '    *                                      '   '                                   *    ' 

<  « 

H33 

it 

H                        («Hli(                                   <   <                                <   < 

t  < 

1091 

(1 

"       "    61  " 

<  < 

1136 

" 

4<       •"    charcoal     " 

i  < 

1069 

*' 

*Traite  des  essais  par  la  voie  seche.  vol.  i,  p.  286. 


84  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

So  that  the  amount  of  combustible  matter  does  not  increase 
after  5  hours'  heating,  and  a  continuance  of  the  heat  diminishes, 
it. 

The  principal  use  of  charcoal  is  in  iron  furnaces,  where  it 
has  been  used  for  years,  and  produces  the  highest  grades  of 
iron,  being  free  from  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  A  small 
amount  is  used  in  private  dwellings  and  hotels  for  heating 
and  cooking.  For  boiler  heating  it  has  been  used  only 
experimentally. 

Scheurer-Kestner  and  Meunier-Dollfus  experimented  with 
it  in  boiler-heating  and  found  very  little  combustible  gas  in 
the  products.  Beech  charcoal  was  used,  and  an  evaporative 
effect  of  7.62  pounds  of  water  was  obtained.  The  waste 
gases  contained: 

Carbonic  acid 1 1 .  16  per  cent. 

Carbonic  oxide o. 37          ' ' 

Oxygen 8.72 

Nitrogen 79-75          " 


100.00 

Brix,  using  wood  and  peat  charcoal,  obtained  the  follow- 
ing results : 

Wood  charcoal 7-55  pounds  evaporated. 

Peat  charcoal 6.85 

Schwackhofer  burnt  charcoal  from  hard  and  soft  wood  in 
his  calorimeter  and  obtained  (constant  volume)  7140  calories 
for  the  soft  charcoal  and  7071  calories  for  the  hard.  The 
charcoal  in  both  cases  was  the  ordinary  unpurified  charcoal  as 
sold. 

WOOD. 

Wood  consists  of  a  compact  tissue  more  or  less  hardr 
formed  of  cellulose  and  a  so-called  incrusting  substance. 


SOLID    FUELS.  85 

Wood  contains,  besides,  small  quantities  of  mineral  matter  and 
hygroscopic  water  varying  from  15  to  30  per  cent,  according 
to  dryness.  Air-dried,  it  contains  about  15  per  cent  of  water,. 
which  it  gives  up  easily  on  exposure  to  a  heat  of  100°  C. 

The  composition  of  wood  may  be  represented  by  the 
following : 

Carbon.  Hydrogen.  Oxygen.   Ash.   Water. 

Wood  dried  at  100° 49.5         6.0         43.5      i.o      o.o 

"      in  the  air 29.6         4.8          34.8     0.8    29.0 

Regarding  wood  from  its  ultimate  composition,  we  may 
consider  it  as  a  hydrate  of  carbon,  that  is,  as  carbon  united  to  , 
water,  the  proportion  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  being  nearly 
the  same  as  in  water.  But  regarded  from  its  proximate  com- 
position, it  is  entirely  different.  What  has  been  said  of  soft 
coal  can  be  repeated  for  wood ;  that,  those  having  a  similar 
ultimate  composition  behave  differently  in  distillation  in  a 
closed  retort  and  produce  very  different  proportions  of  carbon 
(as  charcoal) ;  hydrocarbons,  liquid  or  gaseous ;  acid  products, 
resin,  and  tar.  It  was  supposed  that  the  heat  of  combustion 
differed  also,  and  this  has  been  verified  by  experiments. 

Berthelot  and  Vielle  determined  the  heat  of  combustion  of 
cellulose,  and  found  680  calories  for  the  molecular  weight  of 
wood,  or  about  4200  calories  per  kilogram. 

Hard  wood  gives  less  heat  than  soft  wood.  According  to 
Gottlieb's  experiments,  pine-wood  has  a  heat  value  of  5000 
calories,  while  oak  gave  only  4620  calories.  Mahler's  exper- 
iments confirm  a  difference  in  favor  of  pine,  but  in  less  pro- 
portion. 

Two  determinations  made  by  Mahler  are  (cinders  and  water 

deducted)  : 

Fir.  Oak. 

Carbon 51.08  50.43 

Hydrogen .......    6.12  5.88 

Oxygen  with  trace  of  nitrogen. .  ..     42.90  43-69 


100.00  100.00 

Heat  of  combustion 4828  4689 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


Gottlieb  obtained  the  following  numbers,  using  a  calo- 
rimeter of  constant  pressure,  in  which  he  burnt  2  grams  of 
wood  in  the  space  of  two  or  three  minutes.  The  composition 
of  the  gas  produced  was  not  determined ;  he  was  satisfied 
that  he  had  perfect  combustion,  and  his  figures  do  not  appear 
very  far  from  the  truth.  For  cellulose  he  obtained  4155 
calories. 


Name. 

C. 

H. 

N. 

o. 

Ash. 

Calories. 

B.  T  U. 

Oak  

CQ.  16 

6.  02 

O.OQ 

A'l  .  -76 

0.  17 

4620 

8116 

Ash  

4Q.  1  8 

6.27 

O.O7 

41-QI 

O.  57 

471  1 

8480 

Elm  

48.QQ 

6.  20 

O.O6 

44-  2$ 

O.  5O 

4728 

8510 

Beech  

4Q.O6 

6.  n 

O.OQ 

44.  17 

O.  57 

4774 

gCQT 

Birch  

48.88 

6.06 

o.  10 

44.67 

O.2Q 

4771 

8586 

Fir         .  .    . 

CQ  .  ofi 

e  .02 

o.  05 

41    1Q 

o  28 

5O15 

Pine        

CQ.  ar 

6  .  20 

O  .  O4 

41.  OS 

O   17 

5O85 

VUUJ 
QI  51 

.  Gottlieb's  results  are  69  calories  less  than  Mahler's  for  oak 
and  207  more  for  fir. 

.  In  burning  wood  for  steaming  the  fire  is  easily  controlled; 
combustion  is  more  complete;  the  products  of  combustion 
contain  only  very  small  quantities  of  unburnt  gases;  and  the 
ashes  are  generally  free  from  carbon.  The  countries  using 
wood  for  this  purpose  are  growing  less  in  number  yearly,  on 
account  of  improvement  in  transportation  and  the  discovery 
of  new  coal  seams ;  petroleum  oils  for  fuel  have  also  become 
more  common,  especially  in  Russia,  the  United  States,  and 
Canada. 

Morin  and  Tresca,  in  their  tests,  found  that  one  pound 
of  wood  was  equivalent  to  0.368  pound  of  coal.  Scheurer- 
Kestner's  experiments  in  1871  show  results  more  favorable 
for  wood.  The  wood  used  was  Vosges  fir,  which  had  been 
piled  under  cover  for  half  a  year.  A  cubic  foot  weighed 

19.76  Ibs.  It  was  burnt  in  the  same  boiler  used  in  his 
previous  experiments,  with  the  result  that  I  pound  of  wood 
evaporated  4.4  pounds  of  water.  The  ratio  was  0.490,  or 
nearly  one  half  that  of  Ronchamp  coal. 


SOLID    FUELS. 


Brix  made  a  number  of  experiments  in  using  wood  for 
heating,  and  found  that  dry  pine  gave  the  best  results — 5 
pounds  per  pound  of  fuel.  Elm  gave  4.6  pounds;  birch, 
4.6;  oak,  4.56;  ash,  4.63;  and  beech,  4.47. 

Wood  should  be  dry  as  possible,  as  otherwise  it  has  to 
furnish  heat  to  vaporize,  not  only  the  water  formed  from  its 
hydrogen,  but  also  that  already  existing  as  moisture.  We 
have  seen  that  this  loss  with  coal  is  considerable,  it  is  still 
greater  with  wood.  Suppose  the  wood  to  be  ordinary  air-dried, 
containing  20  per  cent  of  water.  If  this  wood,  when  per- 
fectly dry,  could  evaporate  5  pounds  of  water,  it  now  has 
only  £  of  that  power,  or  power  to  evaporate  4  pounds;  but  it 
already  carries  £  of  its  weight  of  water,  which  must  be  vapor- 
ized. Hence  the  available  power  is  4  pounds  less  \  pound  — 
3|  pounds,  or  76  per  cent  of  its  dry  value.  Hence  the 
economy  of  using  only  dried,  and  even  artificially  dried,  wood. 
RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  VARIOUS  WOODS. 


Wood. 

>, 

si 
H 

</} 

Pounds  in 
One  Cord. 

Percentage 
Charcoal. 

M 
& 

Pounds  of 
Charcoal 
in  a 
Bushel. 

Relative 
Value  of 
Wood. 

I    OOO 

26    22 

o  625 

72    80 

o  885 

44uv 

22    75 

o  481 

oc    or 

o  86 

o  885 

JVD3 
082  1 

2  1    62 

o  401 

21    IO 

o  81 

O    772 

2C    7/1 

O447 

28.78 

077 

o  815 

2647 

21  .  OO 

Oe  CQ 

2Q   Q4 

O7C 

Oak,  black        '. 

o  728 

JU4O 

•72C4 

23    80 

O    787 

2O    36 

O    71 

•<      red         

o  728 

•3254 

22  .  4"? 

o  400 

21    O^ 

o.  60 

O   724 

7276 

TO    62 

o  518 

27    26 

o  65 

Walnut    black  

o  681 

7O44 

22  .  ^6 

o  418 

22    OO 

o.  65 

O.  644 

2878 

21    4.^ 

O.47I 

22.68 

o  60 

Cedar    red  

o.  565 

2525 

24    72 

O    2^8 

12.  52 

O.  56 

Magnolia     

060^ 

o  406 

21    36 

o  56 

Maple    soft  

OCQ7 

2668 

2O  04 

0-570 

TQ   j7 

O    54 

Or  C  T 

2-7     TI 

Oo-io 

17.  52 

O    54 

O    57<^ 

27OI 

27    60 

O274 

10   68 

O    52 

o  567 

2574 

2o   7o 

O277 

12.47 

O.  51 

O   478 

2177 

24  88 

0.78^ 

2O.26 

0.48 

o  426 

IQO4 

26  76 

o.  298 

15.68 

O.  47 

o  418 

1868 

24    7^ 

O    2Q7 

Is?  -42 

O.42 

O-JQ7 

1774 

25  oo 

O2/i  e 

12    85 

o  40 

O    <?  52 

2777 

2C    2O 

O   77Q 

TO    74. 

O    52 

o  567 

25  16 

21  «8l 

o  787 

2O    IS 

O    52 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
LIQUID     FUELS. 

PETROLEUM— SHALE   OILS— GAS  OIL. 

OF  the  many  oils  capable  of  use  as  fuel,  only  those  of  min- 
eral origin  are  used,  the  others  being  too  costly  and  possess- 
ing no  advantage. 

The  mineral  oils  comprehend  the  liquid  hydrocarbons 
extracted  from  bituminous  schist  or  coal  and  its  congeners  by 
distillation,  as  well  as  the  oils  which  exist  already  formed  in 
the  earth,  and  called  by  the  special  name  of  petroleum. 

While  the  former  are  seldom  employed  in  heating,  petro- 
leum has  become  an  important  fuel  in  the  countries  which 
produce  it.  Its  special  qualities,  light  weight,  and  low  price 
per  calorie  compared  with  other  fuels  insure  a  great  future. 
The  knowledge  of  its  heat  of  combustion  has  become,  then,  of 
considerable  interest. 

Its  ultimate  percentage  composition  varies  within  rather 
close  limits,  yet  it  is  of  a  very  complex  proximate  composi- 
tion. The  industry  of  refining  crude  petroleum  extracts  from 
it  some  50  per  cent  of  refined  oil  for  use  in  lamps,  and  hav- 
ing a  density  of  45°  to  46°  Beaume,  boiling-point  170°  C. 
(328°  F.);  10  per  cent  of  naphtha  with  a  lower  density  and, 
boiling-point ;  and  20  per  cent  of  paraffin  oil  of  a  higher  den- 
sity and  boiling-point. 

Crude  petroleum  contains  a  large  number  of  hydrocarbons, 
of  the  general  formula  CHH2M-,_2,  and  running  from  CH4  to 
C16HS4,  with  many  isometric  modifications.  The  industrial 
treatment  modifies  it  profoundly.  Hydrocarbons  containing 


LIQUID   FUELS.  8^ 

95  per  cent  of  carbon  have  been  found  in  the  products  of 
distillation.* 

The  vast  quantities  of  petroleum  possessed  by  the  United 
States,  Russia,  and  other  countries,  and  its  enormous  heat 
value,  early  attracted  the  attention  of  engineers.  Since  then 
it  has  been  found  in  greater  or  less  quantities  in  every  quarter 
of  the  globe,  and  is  now  being  produced  and  used  by  the 
thousand  tons. 

Probably  the  largest  quantity  and  the  most  prolific  wells 
are  in  Russia,  on  or  near  the  Caspian  Sea.  Only  a  small 
portion  of  the  territory  has  yet  been  opened,  but  the  yield 
amounts  to  several  million  barrels  annually,  and  some  of  the 
wells  have  produced  several  thousand  barrels  daily. 

The  amount  produced  in  the  United  States  is  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  country,  as  the  demand  for  the  oil  has 
forced  the  producers  to  constantly  increase  their  facilities, 
and  in  addition  the  oil  is  of  a  quality  better  suited  to  manu- 
facture of  the  various  grades. 

Canada,  Roumania,  Burmah,  Australia,  Peru,  India,  Java, 
and  other  localities  have  produced  smaller  quantities.  New 
and  large  fields  are  being  discovered  now,  and  probably  we 
have  hardly  yet  entered  on  its  field  of  use  for  heating  pur- 
poses. 

Among  the  first  to  use  liquid  fuel,  and  the  first  to  bring 
its  use  to  a  state  of  perfection,  must  be  mentioned  the  Rus- 
sians. The  large  quantity  of  oil  produced  at  such  fabulously 
low  prices,  and  the  high  price  of  coal,  led  them  early  to  its  use 
under  boilers,  both  stationary  and  movable.  For  years  they 
have  used  it  exclusively  in  their  locomotives  and  in  many 
marine  engines.  At  first  the  crude  oil  was  used,  but  after- 
wards astatki,  or  residuum  from  the  first  distillation.  Special 
burners  were  invented  in  large  numbers,  and  now  its  use  is  a 
settled  fact  and  increasing. 

*  Wurtz,  Dictionnaire  de  Chimie,  Supplement. 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


In  other  countries  the  same  great  incentive  did  not  exist, 
and  the  development  was  slower.  In  the  United  States  the 
large  demand  for  illuminating  and  lubricating  oils  consumed 
almost  the  entire  output ;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
American  oil  is  more  easily  manufactured  into  such  products 
than  the  Russian  article. 

In  England  the  large  accumulation  of  shale  oil  conse- 
.quent  on  the  discovery  of  the  yield  of  paraffin  in  American 
oil,  induced  them  to  use  some  as  fuel.  But  this  state  of 
affairs  is  now  over  and  the  shale  oil  is  used  but  little  for 
heating. 

Of  all  the  fuels  possible,  liquid  fuels  offer  the  superior  ad- 
vantages of  high  calorific  power  and  small  bulk.  By  actual 
test  1 60  gallons  of  oil  has  done  as  much  work  in  water  evap- 
oration as  3  tons  of  coal. 

The  composition  of  petroleum  may  be  deduced  from  the 
following  analyses : 

COMPOSITION  AND  VALUE  OF  PETROLEUM. 


Composition. 

Heating 
Power, 
B.  T.  U. 

Carbon. 

Hydro- 
gen. 

Oxygen. 

86.3 
86.5 
87.I 
84.9 
86.6 

84-3 
80.2 

85.3 
87.1 

13.6 
12.3 
II-  7 
13-7 
12.9 

13-4 
I7.I 
12.6 
12.0 

O.I 
I.I 
1.2 
i-4 
o.S 
2-3 
2.7 

2.1 

0.9 

22,628 
19,440 
19,260 
19,224 
21,240 
20,410 
21,600 
18,416 
19,496 

\Vest  Virginia  crude.  ... 

It  will  be  seen  that,  pound  for  pound,  its  value  as  a  fuel 
should  be  greater  than  that  of  coal,  and  actual  test  shows 
such  to  be  the  case. 

Some  experiments  made  at  the  Hecla  Engineering  Works, 
Preston,  England,  and  lasting  two  days,  used  a  marine  boiler. 


LIQUID    FUELS.  9! 

The  first  day  natural  draft  was  used,  the  second  a  Korting 
blower.  The  oil  was  blast-furnace  oil  from  Sheffield,  and 
contained : 

Per  cent. 

Carbon 83. 54 

Hydrogen I o.  59 

Oxygen $-94 

Sulphur , .     0.09 

100. 16 

By  Thompson's  calorimeter  its  value  was  16080  B.  T.  U. 
Equivalent  to  water  at  212  °F 16.66  pounds. 

The  results  were:  First  day,  14.97  Ibs. ;  second  day,  14.21 
Ibs., — a  yield  of  89.87  and  85.25  per  cent  of  the  theoret- 
ical. 

A  series  of  tests  made  at  South  Lambeth  with  a  Cornish 
boiler  showed  20.8  Ibs.  evaporation;  average  of  several  days, 
19.5  Ibs.  The  same  boiler  with  the  best  Aberdeen  coafi 
yielded  6.5  Ibs., — an  advantage  of  3  to  I  in  favor  of  the 
oil. 

Mr.  Urquhart,  in  reporting  his  tests  with  locomotives  in 
1884,  says: 

"  The  former  (astatki)  has  a  theoretical  evaporative  power  of 
1 6. 2  Ibs.  of  water  per  pound  of  fuel,  and  the  latter  (anthracite) 
of  12.2  Ibs.  at  an  effective  pressure  of  8  atmospheres,  or  120 
Ibs.  per  square  inch ;  hence  petroleum  has,  weight  for  weight, 
33  per  cent  higher  evaporative  value  than  anthracite.  Now, 
in  locomotive  practice,  a  mean  evaporation  of  from  7  to- 
7J  Ibs.  of  water  per  pound  of  anthracite  is  about  what  is  gener- 
ally obtained,  thus  giving  about  60  per  cent  of  efficiency, 
while  40  per  cent  of  heating  power  is  unavoidably  lost.  But 
with  petroleum  an  evaporation  of  12.25  IDS-  is  practically  ob- 

12.25  ^ 

tained,  giving  — ^ — =  75     per  cent  efficiency.     Thus,  in  the 

first    place,    petroleum   is  theoretically  33   per  cent   superior 


g\a  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

to  anthracite  in  evaporative  power;  and,  secondly,  its  useful 
effect  is  15  per  cent  greater,  being  75  per  cent  instead  of  60 
per  cent ;  while,  thirdly,  weight  for  weight,  the  practical 
evaporative  value  of  petroleum  must  be  reckoned  as  at  least 

12.25—7.50  12.25—7.00 

from  -     — —^—  —  .63  percent  to — ' =    75    per 

7.50  7.00 

cent  higher  than  that  of  anthracite." 

Add  to  the  above  advantages  the  fact  that  no  ashes  are 
produced,  no  coal  to  be  handled,  no  smoke,  no  dust,  none  of 
the  usual  unpleasant  accompaniments  of  ordinary  coal-burn- 
ing practice,  and  an  idea  can  be  had  of  the  benefits  not  to  be 
measured  by  actual  percentages,  etc. 

The  first  calorimetric  experiments  were  published  by 
Ste. -Claire  Deville  in  1868  or  1869,  using  a  large  calorimeter 
especially  constructed  for  the  work.  Mahler  used  the  bomb. 
The  liquids  were  burnt  in  the  bomb  under  nearly  the  same 
conditions  as  solids,  when  they  had  no  appreciable  vapor 
tension.  When  they  had  considerable  vapor  tension  (light 
oils,  for  instance)  Berthelot  enclosed  them  in  a  closed  vessel, 
the  bottom  being  platinum  and  the  top  formed  by  a  pellicle 
of  gun-cotton.  Others  have  made  determinations  by  nearly 
the  same  methods,  and  a  list  of  those  available  will  be  found 
on  pages  251,  252,  and  253. 

I  For  burning  liquid  fuel  the  best  burner  is  that  which 
atomizes  or  sprays  the  fuel.  By  thus  forming  a  fine  mist 
an  approximation  to  the  theoretical  fuel,  gas,  is  obtained. 
Several  methods  are  in  use  for  this  purpose.  By  some  the 
oils  are  vaporized  by  heat ;  but  this  is  applicable  only  to  light 
oils,  which  are  not  much  used.  The  favorite  method  is  by 
having  the  burner  so  constructed  that  the  oil  is  forced  out  in 
a  spray  and  at  the  same  time  mixed  with  the  air  necessary  for 
its  combustion.  By  this  means  a  solid  sheet  of  flame  is  pro- 
duced, and  may  be  made  of  any  length  desired ;  in  some  cases 
lengths  of  100  feet  have  been  reached. 

When  using  the  fuel  oil  commonly  used  in  the  United 


LIQUID   FUELS.  91  £ 

States  air  sprayers  are  sufficient,  as  this  oil  is  a  distilled 
product  and  contains  none  of  the  very  heavy  solid  portions 
of  the  crude  oil.  In  Russia  and  in  Canada,  however,  the 
•case  is  different,  as  in  these  countries  the  fuel  oil  is  the 
residuum  from  the  distillation  and  contains  all  the  heavy  and 
none  of  the  light  oils.  In  this  case  steam  is  used  as  an  atom- 
izing agent,  and  it  acts  in  virtue  of  its  heat  as  well  as  its  force. 

The  various  methods  depending  on  the  distillation  and 
decomposition  at  high  temperatures  are  not  considered  here, 
as  the  products  formed  are  gases  and  will  be  considered  as 
belonging  to  Chapter  IX. 

In  actual  practice  results  have  been  and  are  being  ob- 
tained which  agree  with  and  at  times  exceed  the  predicted  ones. 
Many  tests  have  been  published  showing  an  efficiency  of  85 
to  90  per  cent  of  the  theoretical  evaporative  power,  and  an 
-evaporation  of  from  19  to  25  Ibs.  per  pound  of  fuel  has 
been  frequently  obtained.  Carefully  conducted  tests  have 
reached  figures  much  in  excess  of  these.  Admiral  Selwyn  in 
1884,  at  London,  with  a  Cornish  boiler  having  a  fire-brick 
combustion-chamber  built  inside  the  flue,  obtained  at  different 
.times  an  evaporation  of  46,  29,  24,  33,  23,  29,  33,  37,  29,  35, 
and  46  Ibs.  of  water  per  pound  of  fuel. 

The  products  of  combustion  in  the  following  table  show- 
how  complete  the  combustion  was  and  how  small  an  excess 
of  air  was  needed. 


CO,  
CO  

14.19 
^.20 

18.08 

O.  34. 

o. 

o  78 

O  34 

Hydrocarbons.  .  . 
H  

1.30 
Not  determined. 

**•  JT- 

None. 

None. 

N., 

78.  <U 

81.24. 

To  have  the  best  results,  the  burner  must  be  so  regulated 
As  to  have  a  flame  bordering  on,  but  not  quite,  smoky.    Thus 


QIC 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


sufficient  and  not  too  much  air  is  obtained.  The  quantity  of 
steam  needed  to  atomize  the  oil  at  Moscow  is  4  per  cent  of 
the  water  evaporated. 

Since  then  numerous  similar  results  have  been  reached. 

Actual  tests  made  on  locomotives  of  the  Grazi  and  Tsar- 
itzin  line,  in  Russia,  show  for  one  year: 

EIGHT-WHEELED  ENGINES  WITH  COAL. 


No.  of  Cars  to  Train. 

Distance  Run  by 
Locomotives. 

Coal  burnt  per  Mile. 

Cost. 

37-51 

511,  995'  m. 

81.43  Ibs. 

22.6  C. 

WITH  PETROLEUM  RESIDUUM. 


No.  of  Cars  to  Train. 

'Distance  Run  by 
Locomotives. 

Oil  Burnt  per  Mile. 

Cost. 

38.08 

868,712  m. 

45.83  Ibs. 

13.0  c. 

SIX-WHEELED  ENGINES  WITH  COAL. 


No.  of  Cars  to  Train. 

Distance  Run  uy 
Locomotives. 

Coal  Burnt  per  Mile. 

Cost. 

26.32 

1,341,681  m. 

57-25  Ibs. 

-, 

15.6  c. 

WITH  PETROLEUM  RESIDUUM. 


No.  of  Cars  to  Train. 

Distance  Run  by 
Locomotives. 

Oil  Burnt  per  Mile. 

Cost. 

25-45 

1,487,333  m. 

32.23  Ibs. 

9.0  c. 

Besides  use  for  heating  boilers,  liquid  fuel  has  been  used 
with  good  results  in  puddling-furnaces,  glass-works,  smelting- 
furnaces,  brick-making,  lime-burning,  and  in  almost  every 
place  where  coal  would  be  used.  In  some  cases  where  fine 
adjustment  of  temperatures  has  been  needed  it  has  been  a 
strong  competitor  to  gas  itself. 


LIQUID    FUELS. 

Many  of  the  results  obtained  are  far  above  the  theoreti- 
cal quantities  based  on  the  usual  calorific  values  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  etc.  To  explain  this  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  value  usually  given  to  carbon  is  its  value  as  a  solid, 
whereas  when  we  vaporize  oils  we  approach  or  actually  reach 
the  gaseous  state,  and  should  therefore  have  greater  values. 

The  calorific  value  of  carbon  solid  is  8 1 37  calories  (charcoal) 
and  of  carbon  vapor  11,328  calories  (see  page  73),  showing  an 
increase  of  39  per  cent  in  carbon  value.  With  a  sample  of  oil 
containing  86. 6C,  12. QH,  0.50,  the  two  values  would  be 
11,475  and  14,759  calories  (20,655  and  26,566  B.  T.  U.). 

Again,  we  do  not  know  the  actual  state  of  combination 
existing  among  the  atoms  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
That  they  do  not  exist  as  in  the  combinations  obtained  by 
distillation  is  known,  and  many  unavailing  attempts  have 
been  made  to  solve  the  problem.  The  presence  of  steam  in 
some  of  the  burners  complicates  the  question  still  further,  as 
there  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  rearrangement  of  some  of  the 
atoms  occurs  and  new  compounds  are  formed. 

That  this  is  the  case  is  easily  shown  by  the  difference  in 
the  quantity  of  gas  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  oil 
with  and  without  steam.  In  the  former  case  only  150  to  200 
cubic  feet  are  produced  from  a  gallon,  while  in  the  latter  as 
high  as  1000  cubic  feet  or  more. 

Oils  other  than  mineral  may  be,  and  at  exceptional  times 
are,  used.  Their  calorific  power  is  high,  as  may  be  seen  from 
Table  i.  Their  use,  however,  is  so  infrequent  that  special 
mention  of  this  is  not  necessary  here. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
GASEOUS    FUELS. 

THE  heat  of  combustion  of  gaseous  combustibles  has  been 
determined  for  a  great  many  compounds,  definite  and  pure. 
That  of  the  industrial  gases  has  been  determined  by  different 
operators  and  in  different  ways,  with  more  or  less  happy 
results.  Its  determination  is  often  one  of  the  greatest  com- 
mercial interest,  since  it  is  used  in  domestic  heating  as  well 
as  in  industrial  appliances,  where  it  is  necessary  to  obtain 
definite,  regular  working.  It  serves  also  to  furnish  motive 
power  to  gas-engines,  in  which  the  heat  of  combustion  is  not 
without  importance.  Finally,  it  is  well  to  know  the  heat 
produced  in  air  or  watqr-gas  apparatus,  if  we  wish  to  reach 
the  best  condition  for  their  production  and  use. 

For  heating  steam-boilers  gas  has  given  good  results  and 
a  very  high  evaporative  effect.  It  is  easily  regulated,  and 
thus  any  required  heat  can  be  produced  by  simply  turning  a 
valve.  No  smoke  is  generated,  no  soot  or  deposit  of  any 
land  produced  in  the  flues,  and  no  ashes  to  take  out  of  the 
ash-pit.  The  fireplace  needs  repairing  but  seldom,  and 
the  boiler  is  heated  evenly  and  regularly,  there  being  no 
clanger  of  burning  out  in  strongly  heated  spots,  as  no  such 
spots  exist. 

In  metallurgical  furnaces,  gas  possesses  a  decided  advan- 
tage in  its  long,  clean,  easily  managed,  intense  flame,  and  this 
advantage  has  been  long  recognized.  A  flame  of  25  feet  or 
more  in  length  is  easily  produced,  and  it  is  practically  uniform 
for  its  whole  extent.  Part  of  the  heat  usually  lost  up  the 
chimney  can  be  utilized  to  heat  the  air-supply,  and  no  more  is 
supplied  than  just  enough  for  perfect  combustion. 

Using  gas  as  fuel  enables  the  metallurgist  to  use  poor 

92 


GASEOUS  FUELS.  93 

grades  of  coal,  and  all  variations  in  quality  may  be  eliminated, 
a  uniform  product  being  had  by  storing  the  gas  in  a  holder,  or 
by  making  proper  arrangement  of  different  generators  so  that 
an  average  will  be  obtained.  In  several  cases  where  hand-fed 
coal  fires  have  been  tried  against  fires  burning  gas  from  the 
same  coal,  better  results  have  been  obtained,  due  to  the  possi- 
bility of  more  closely  adjusted  regulation.  The  tests  made 
at  Brieg  may  be  cited.  Here  each  boiler  had  141.25  square 
feet  of  heating-surface  and  steam-pressure  6  to  7  atmospheres. 
No.  I  -boiler  was  hand-fired;  No.  2  was  gas-fired.  The 
evaporation  in  pounds  per  pound  of  fuel  was: 

No.  1 8.34  8.74  8.28  4.02  2.569  2.764   ii; 

No.  2 9.86  9.73  10.07  5-44  3.251   3.158  -'•'•'• 

Increase...  18$   \2%   2Q%    35$   25'$ 


HEAT    OF    COMBUSTION    OF    GASES    FROM   ANALYSIS.         , 

'    .'  i  i 

When  the  chemical  composition  of  a  gas  is  known  exactly, 
its  heat  of  combustion  can  be  correctly  calculated;  but  in 
absence  of  a  correct  analysis,  the  calorimeter  must  be  used.  -.'•, 

Knowing  the  proximate  composition  of  a  combustible 
gas,  that  is,  the  proportion  of  chemically  defined  components 
as  well  as  their  heats  of  combustion,  it  is  sufficient  to  add  the 
numbers  obtained  for  each  constituent  gas.  Take,  for 
example,  the  analysis  of  illuminating  gas  of  Manchester  as 
given  by  Bunsen: 

Hydrogen 45-58 

Marsh  gas'  (CH4) 34-9O 

Carbonic  oxide 6.64 

Ethylene  (C2H4); 4.08 

Butylene  (C4H8) 2.38 

Sulphydric  acid „ 0.29 

Nitrogen 2.46   (  ,,  . 

Carbonic  acid ... .    3.67 


roo.oo 


94  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

The  calculation  is  as  follows : 


Components. 

No.  of  Litres  per 
Cubic  Metre. 

Weight  per  Cubic 
Metre  at  o°  and 
70°  mm. 
Grams. 

Heat  of 

Combustion  per 
Cubic  Metre. 

Calculated 
Calories. 

455-8 

369 
40.8 
23.8 
66.4 
2-9 

cubic  metre. 

89.61 
715.58 
1251.94 
2503.88 
1251.50 
2551.99 

3066 
9340 
14980 
29042 

3057 
11400 

1395 
3169 
611 
690 

201 

33 
6099 

Marsh  gas,  CH4  

Olefiant  gas   C2H4 

Butvlene    CiHs  

Sulphydric  acid,  H2S... 
Total  calories  per 

City  of  Manchester  gas,  as  analyzed  by  Bunsen,  gives, 
then,  with  complete  combustion,  6099  calories  per  cubic 
metre  (685  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot). 

If,  however,  only  the  actual  ultimate  composition  of  the 
gas  is  known  or  the  total  percentage  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen  and  nitrogen,  then  the  calculated  result  will  differ  from 
the  experimental  one.  This  is  because  the  heat  units  of  the 
elements  added  together  do  not  make  those  of  the  compound, 
as  the  heat  of  combination  of  the  different  constituent  gases 
is  not  allowed  for.  If  this  factor  is  known,  then  it  can  be 
used  as  a  correction  and  the  correct  heat  determined. 

This  heat  of  combination  of  the  elements  to  form  the 
component  gases  will  be  seen  in  comparing  the  calculated  and 
the  actual  heat  of  combustion  of  the  following  gases : 


Gases. 

Formulae. 

Carbon. 

Hydro- 
gen. 

Calculated 
Heat. 

Actual 
Heat. 

Differ- 
ence. 

Marsh  gas  

CH4 

7c 

2C 

ij.686; 

I  T^d"} 

,  1    T'J/12 

Olefiant  gas  

C2H4 

85.7 

14..  -a 

flgCQ 

I2l82 

—    •12'^ 

C2H2 

02  "\ 

7.7 

IOT  14 

12142 

—  2O28 

C6He 

O2   "\ 

7  7 

101  14 

1  24IO 

It  will  also  be  seen,  that  although  two  gases  may  have  the 
same  percentage  composition  of  the  elements,  yet  the  heat  of 
combustion  may  be  different  owing  to  the  action  of  the  various 
physical  forces  at  work  in  molecular  condensation,  etc. 


GASEOUS  FUELS,  9? 

COAL  GAS. 

The  heat  of  combustion  of  illuminating  gas  obtained  from 
the  distillation  of  coal  in  closed  retorts  is  very  variable.  It 
depends  not  only  on  the  nature  of  the  fuel,  but  also  on  the 
rapidity  of  the  distillation  and  the  heat  by  which  it  is  accom 
plished.  The  heat  of  combustion  varies  from  5200  to  6300 
calories  per  cubic  metre.  It  cannot  be  represented  by  any 
average  number. 

According  to  Witz,  at  the  same  gas-works  and  with  the 
same  fuel,  yields  may  occur  from  4719  to  5425  calories. 
According  to  Bueb-Dessau,  the  illuminating  gas  of  the  same 
city  during  the  same  day  will  sometimes  vary  20  per  cent. 
Dr.  Birchmore  reports  the  same  result  from  his  examinations 
of  the  gas  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

We  are  not  certain  that  the  composition  assigned  to  coal 
gas  by  analysis  corresponds  always  to  the  gas  as  obtained  by 
distillation ;  in  Europe,  especially,  a  portion  of  the  heavy 
hydrocarbons  is  taken  out  for  sale  separately,  and  the  deficiency 
supplied  by  cheaper  oils. 

From  several  experiments  which  he  made,  Bueb-Dessau* 
thought  that  the  heat  of  combustion  of  illuminating  gas  was 
directly  proportional  to  the  candle  power;  but  in  addition  to 
this  being  opposed  to  the  theory  of  heat,  the  experiments  of 
Aguitton  show  the  contrary.  He  concluded  from  his  deter- 
minations that  each  illuminating  gas  of  different  candle  power 
has  a  definite  heat  of  combustion  which  corresponds  to  the 
intensity  of  the  light.  His  experiments  were  carried  on  with 
more  than  a  hundred  samples,  rich  and  poor,  the  former  kind 
from  cannel  coal,  the  latter  from  the  end  of  the  run  carried  to 
an  extreme.  He  represents  by  the  following  formula  the 

*  Bueb-Dessau  cites  the  following  among  others: 

Candle-power.  Heat-value. 

Gas  of  Dessau 14.  4400  calories 

Gas  of  Bremen 21.9  5977 

Gas  from  cannel  coal 26.0  6559 


96  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

relation  between  candle  power  and  heat  of  combustion  of  a 
gas: 

c  —  i  X  352.6  +  2280, 

in  which  c  represents  the  heat  of  combustion  and  i  the  candle 
power.  The  formula  seems  to  be  applicable  only  between 
limits  at  which  it  has  been  verified — from  5  to  15  candles. 
Aguitton's  determinations  were  made  with  the  calorimetric 
bomb. 

The  following  table  gives  a  rfcumt  of  his  observations : 

C«dle  Power.  ,        |        Heat  o^mbn.tion 

5 .  4043 

6 4395 

7 4748 

8 5101 

9 - 5453 

10 „ 5806 

ii 6158 

12 6511 

13 6864 

14 72 16 

15 7569 

75  9  —  4Q43  _  352  6>  coefficient  adopted. 

The  three  samples  of  illuminating  gas,  analyzed  and  burnt 
in  the  bomb  by  Mahler  and  given  in  the  table  below,  call  for 
the  following  observations:  Gas  from  Niddrie  cannel  coal,  the 
most  calorific  per  cubic  metre  is  the  least  calorific  per  kilo- 
gram, because  the  density  is  greater  than  that  of  the  other 
two.  The  richest  in  hydrogen  by  volume  (Lavillette)  is  the 
poorest  in  calorific  power  per  cubic  metre,  while  the  poorest 
in  hydrogen  by  weight  is  the  richest  in  calories  per  cubic 
metre.  These  are  due  to  the  low  density  of  hydrogen,  which 


GASEOUS  FUELS. 


97. 


is  less  calorific  by  volume  than  the  other  hydrocarbons  occur- 
ring in  illuminating  gas. 


Name. 

•5 

1 

Analysis  by  Weight. 

Heat  of  Combustion 

Carbon  in  Hydro- 
carbons. 

Hydrogen. 

Carbonic  Oxide. 

Carbonic  Acid. 

1  . 
2  = 
'If 
g| 

ort 

Per  Cubic  Metre  at 
o°  and  760  m. 

Per  Kilogram. 

Niddrie  cannel.  . 
Commentry  coal. 
Lavillette  gas.  .  . 

0.6367 
o  .  4046 
0.4033 

43-33 
43-74 
42.25 

I3-50 
21.46 
21.34 

16.84 
24.96 
21.23 

9.26 

7.08 
6.83 

14.96 

5-75 
8-33 

6365 

5804 
5602 

7735 

1  1  TOO 
10764 

A  cubic  metre  of  hydrogen  develops  3091  calories  in 
burning;  a  cubic  metre  of  marsh  gas  develops  10038  calories; 
a  cubic  metre  of  olefiant  gas,  15250  calories. 

GAS   OF  GASOGENES. 

The  gasogenes,  instead  of  transforming  the  fuel  into  car- 
bonic acid  and  water  in  a  single  combustion,  produce  this 
change  in  two  distinct  burnings,  the  first  being  to  make  a 
combustible  gas  and  the  second  to  burn  this  gas  with  air. 

In  the  first  furnace,  the  coal,  for  example,  is  burnt  in  such 
a  manner  by  feeding  with  an  insufficient  supply  of  air  that  a, 
gaseous  mixture  is  produced,  containing  principally  carbonic 
oxide,  besides  nitrogen  from  the  air.  -As  the  combustion  has 
been  well  or  poorly  managed,  it  contains  a  less  or  greater 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  the  production  of  which  is  avoided, 
as  much  as  possible.  This  is  done  by  giving  to  the  fuel  only 
just  enough  air  to  form  carbonic  oxide,  and  not  enough  to. 
form  carbonic  acid,  even  partially,  and  by  making  the  bed  of 
fuel  quite  deep. 

The  heat  produced   by  this  combustion  is  not  used,  and 
consequently  an  important  part  of  the  calories  of  the  coal  is 
lost.      Gasogene  gas  is  then  lower  in  calories,  and  inferior  tp». 
coal  gas,  as  commonly  made  by  distillation. 


98  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

One  kilogram  of  carbon  burnt  to  carbonic  oxide  disen- 
gages 2489  calories,  while  I  kilogram  of  carbon  burnt  to  car- 
bonic acid  generates  8137  calories.  There  is  lost,  then,  in 
burning  carbon  to  carbonic  oxide  in  a  gasogene  about  30  per 
cent  of  the  available  calories. 

At  first  sight  this  method  of  working  seems  irrational,  but 
for  obtaining  high  temperatures  there  are  practical  advantages, 
whose  importance  far  exceeds  the  loss  of  heat  in  the  gaso- 
gene. It  permits  much  more  elevated  temperatures,  and  the 
recovery  of  a  large  portion  of  the  heat,  which  in  direct  sys- 
tems of  heating  in  high  temperature  furnaces  passes  to  the 
chimney  as  complete  loss.  There  is  actually  an  economy  in 
the  ordinary  metallurgical  methods  even  with  this  loss. 

By  means  of  gasogenes,  we  produce  three  kinds  of  gaseous 
fuel :  the  gas  called  producer  or  air  gas,  formed  by  the  incom- 
plete combustion  of  the  fuel,  with  production  of  a  mixed  gas 
containing  carbonic  oxide  and  hydrogen  compounds ;  the  gas 
called  water  gas,  from  the  decomposition  of  water  by  carbon  at  a 
high  temperature,  with  production  of  carbonic  oxide,  hydrogen, 
and  hydrogen  compounds;  and  the  gas  called  mixed  gas, 
from  the  mixture  of  the  two  preceding  ones  by  a  process 
which  combines  the  production  of  the  two  gases  in  the  same 
furnace. 

PRODUCER    OR   AIR    GAS. 

We  have  said  that  air  gas  results  from  incomplete  com- 
bustion, and  that  its  formation  causes  a  loss  of  one  third  of 
the  calories  resulting  from  the  complete  combustion  of  the 
fuel.  These  gases  contain,  naturally,  the  nitrogen  of  the  air 
used,  to  which  must  be  added  that  of  the  air  necessary  to 
change  the  carbonic  oxide  and  the  hydrogen  to  carbonic  acid 
and  water. 

The  heat  of  combustion  and  the  composition  determined 
by  different  experimenters  varies  considerably,  showing  that 
they  did  not  always  work  with  average  samples. 


GASEOUS  FUELS,  99 


The  proportion  of  nitrogen  in  these  gases  reaches  56  to 
<6o  per  cent  ;  that  of  carbonic  oxide,  21  to  32  per  cent  ;  that  of 
of  hydrogen,  from  traces  to  17  per  cent.  The  theoretical 
calculation  for  the  combustion  of  carbon  in  air  to  a  gas  con- 
taining only  carbonic  oxide  and  nitrogen  gives  for  the  first 
34.7  and  for  the  second  65.3  per  cent. 

By  adopting  for  the  composition  of  air  the  round  numbers 
79  and  21,  and  for  the  weight  of  oxygen  1.430  grams  per 
litre,  for  carbon  the  atomic  weight  of  12,  and  for  oxygen  16, 

12  :  16  —  1000  grams  :  1333  grams. 

A  kilogram  of  carbon  needs,  then,  \\  kilograms  of  oxygen. 
A  litre  of  oxygen  weighing  1.430  grams,  1333  grams  would 
occupy  932  litres.  These  932  litres  will  give  with  carbon  a 
double  volume,  or  1864  litres  carbonic  oxide.  Multiplying 
932  litres  by  the  coefficient  4.77  (see  Table  XIV),  we  obtain 
the  volume  of  the  air  corresponding,  or  4445  litres.  The 
gases  of  combustion  will  be  composed  then  of  these  4445 
litres  of  air  and  the  932  litres  of  increase  in  volume,  or  5377 
litres  for  I  kilogram  of  carbon.  The  4445  litres  of  air  will 
contain  (at  79  per  cent)  3513  litres  of  nitrogen,  or  65.3  per 
cent.* 

The  calculation  is  more  complicated  when  we  have  fuel 
containing  hydrogen,  as  one  portion  of  the  oxygen  disappears 
by  its  combination  with  the  hydrogen  to  form  water.  Take 
for  example,  a  coal  containing  90  per  cent  of  carbon,  5  per 
cent  of  hydrogen,  and  5  per  cent  of  oxygen.  Suppose  I 
kilogram  of  this  coal,  under  theoretical  conditions,  burnt  in  a 
gasogene,  i.e.,  with  perfect  transformation  of  the  carbon  into 
•carbonic  oxide  and  no  residues.  This  coal  contains  900 
grams  carbon,  50  grams  hydrogen,  50  grams  oxygen.  900 

*  One  pound  of  carbon  requires  1.333  Ibs.  of  oxygen;  I  cubic  foot  of 
oxygen  weighs  0.08926  Ib.  ;  1.333  Ibs.  measure  14.93  cu.  ft.  These  would 
give  29.86of  CO.  14.93  X  4-77  =  71.216,  and  71.216  -f  14.93  =  86.146,  volume 
of  gases  of  combustion.  These  contain  56.26  cu.  ft.  of  nitrogen. 


100  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

grams  carbon  produce  2100  grams  carbonic  oxide,  requiring 
1  200  grams  oxygen.  1200  grams  oxygen  occupy  839  litres. 
50  grams  hydrogen  produce  450  grams  water,  and  require 
400  grams  oxygen.  These  400  grams  oxygen  occupy  2/9 
litres.  But  the  coal  itself  contains  50  grams  oxygen,  occupy- 
ing 35  litres. 

We  have,  then,  839  +  279  —  35  =  1083  litres  of  oxygen 
required,  and  to  calculate  the  amount  of  air  needed  multiply 
by  4.77.  This  gives  5163  litres  of  air  needed  for  the  incom- 
plete combustion  of  I  kilogram  of  carbon.  These  5163  litres 
contain  4080  litres  of  nitrogen. 

To  obtain  the  total  volume  of  gases  produced  by  the 
incomplete  combustion,  we  may  add  to  the  volume  of  the  air 
introduced  the  volume  due  to  the  formation  of  carbonic  oxidev 
and  this  is  equal  to  the  volume  of  the  oxygen  used,  or  839 
litres.  We  have,  then,  5163  +  839  =  6002  litres.  But  a 
quantity  of  oxygen  has  disappeared  corresponding  to  the 
formation  of  the  water,  or  279—  35  =  244  litres  (35  litres 
exists  in  the  coal  as  above),  and  6002  —  244  =5758  litres  of 
gas  produced  by  the  incomplete  combustion  of  I  kilogram  of 
coal. 

Now,  then,  5163  litres  of  air  contain  4079  litres  of  nitro- 


gen, which  would  form        -,  or  70.8   per   cent  of  the   total 

gas.      All  these  numbers  are  at  o°  and  760  mm.  pressure.* 

Generally  gasogenes  contain  less  nitrogen,  different  causes 
producing  diminution,  among  which   are  the  use  of  a  lower 

*One  pound  of  coal  would  be  6300  grains  carbon,  350  grains  oxygen, 
and  350  grains  hydrogen;  0.90  Ib.  carbon  produces  2.1  Ibs.  carbonic  oxide, 
and  needs  1.2  Ibs.  oxygen;  1.2  Ibs.  oxygen  occupies  13.44  cu.  ft.;  0.050  Ib. 
hydrogen  produces  0.450  Ib.  water,  and  needs  0.400  Ib.  oxygen,  or  4.48  cu. 
ft.  The  0.05  Ib.  of  oxygen  in  the  coal  occupies  0.56  cu.  ft.  Then  13.44  + 
4.48—0.56  =  17.36  of  oxygen  required  17.36  X  4-77  =  82.81  cu.  ft.  of  air, 
containing  65.41  cu.  ft.  nitrogen.  Total  gases,  82.81  -f-  13.44  —  3-92  =  92.33 
total  volume  of  gas,  and 

1  =  70.8  per  cent. 
•92.33 


GASEOUS  FUELS.  IOI 

hydrogen  coal  than  we  have  taken,  and  the  decomposition  of 
the  fuel  in  the  body  of  the  furnace  with  a  certain  quantity  of 
aqueous  vapor  formed  during  the  combustion,  or  from  the 
moisture  in  the  air  supplied. 

Mahler  determined  the  heat  of  combustion  of  a  sample  of 
gas  from  the  Follembray  glass-house,  and  found  its  composi 
tion  per  volume,  using  coal  from  Be"thune,  to  be: 

Marsh  gas 2 

Hydrogen    12 

Carbonic   oxide 21 

Carbonic  acid 5 

N  itrogen 60 

100 
The  heat  of  combustion  calculated  from  its  composition  is: 

Marsh  gas 0.02  X   10038  =   200.8 

Hydrogen 0.12  x     3091=   370.9 

CO 0.2 1  X     3043  =   639.0 


1210.7 
With  the  bomb  he  found  1212  calories. 

WATER  GAS   AND    MIXED    GAS. 

Water  gas  is  produced  when  water  is  decomposed  at  high 
temperatures  by  fuels  containing  but  little  hydrogen,  such 
as  anthracite,  charcoal,  or  coke.  Mixed  with  hydrocarbon 
vapors,  added  to  enrich  it,  or  which  may  have  been  decom- 
posed with  the  aqueous  vapor,  it  serves  for  the  illumination 
of  a  great  number  of  cities,  principally  in  America.  But  this 
is  not  its  only  use,  as  it  is  used  for  heating,  and  also  for  gas- 
engines.  Mixed  with  producer  gas,  it  has  become  a  powerful 
means  of  heating,  especially  where  high  temperatures  are 
wanted. 

Water  gas  contains  but  little  nitrogen:  this  is  its  main 
distinction  from  producer  gas,  and  that  which-- gives  it  a 
special  value  from  an  economical  heating  point  of  view. 


102  CALORIFIC  POWER   Of  FUELS. 

We  have  previously  stated  (page  97)  that  during  the 
combustion  of  carbon  in  a  gasogene,  there  occurs  a  genera- 
tion of  nearly  one  third  of  the  total  heat  were  the  fuel  com- 
pletely burnt.  Besides  this,  the  combustion  produces  a  gas 
containing  about  one  third  its  weight  of  combustible  gas  and 
two  thirds  inert  gas  (nitrogen),  which  is  mixed  with  it. 

These  are  important  causes  of  two  sources  of  loss  in 
calories.  In  an  air-gasogene  one  third  of  the  calories  is  lost, 
since  the  gaseous  products  give  up  most  of  their  sensible  heat 
before  being  used.  The  66  per  cent  of  inert  gas  carries  off 
an  enormous  quantity  of  heat  to  the  chimney,  and  thence  to 
the  open  air.  It  was  with  the  idea  of  regaining  or  stopping 
these  losses,  or  at  least  a  large  portion  of  them,  that  water 
gas  originated. 

Aqueous  vapor  and  carbon,  when  submitted  to  a  high 
temperature,  produce  carbonic  oxide  and  hydrogen.  Theo- 
retically these  are  free  from  nitrogen ;  but  there  is  always 
present  a  small  percentage  for  various  causes.  In  the  air 
gasogene  12  kilograms  of  carbon  and  16  kilograms  of  oxy- 
gen (atomic  weights)  unite  to  form  28  kilograms  of  carbonic 
oxide.  On  the  other  hand,  12  kilograms  of  carbon  and  18 
kilograms  of  water  form  28  kilograms  of  carbonic  oxide  and 
2  kilograms  of  hydrogen.  Then  I  kilogram  of  carbon  fur- 
nishes 2.5  kilograms  of  gas  composed  of  carbonic  oxide  and 
hydrogen. 

One  kilogram  of  hydrogen  has  a  caloric  energy  of  29042 
calories.*  These  calories  represent  also  the  quantity  of  heat 
necessary  to  decompose  the  water;  in  the  case  of  the  water 
gas  gasogene  they  are  formed  by  the  carbon  burnt.  The  12 
kilograms  of  carbon  will  have  to  furnish,  then,  the  calories 
necessary  to  decompose  18  kilograms  of  water;  that  is, 

2  X  29042  =  58084  calories. 

*  Water  being  considered  as  vapor. 


GASEOUS  FUELS. 
But  12  kilograms  of  carbon,  in  burning,  generate  only 
12  X  2473  —  29676  calories. 

To  decompose  the  water,  then,  there  is  a  shortage  of 
force  of 

58084  —  29676  =  28408  calories 

for  2  kilograms  of  hydrogen,  or  14204  calories  for  I  kilo- 
gram. The  heat  must  be  furnished  by  an  external  source. 
In  other  terms,  to  gasify  I  kilogram  of  carbon  there  must  be 
supplied 

14204  -r-  6  =  2367  calories. 

As  may  be  easily  seen,  this  operation  absorbs  much  heat, 
and  the  combustion  of  the  water  gas  can  give  only  the  calo- 
ries used  at  first  in  forming  it.  The  heat  necessary  for  the 
decomposition  of  the  water  is  actually  taken  from  that  of  the 
preparatory  period  of  the  air  gasogene,  which  makes  a  loss  of 
one  third  of  the  total  calories.  In  burning  the  water  gas 
made  under  these  conditions  we  utilize  a  part  of  the  heat 
which  would  have  been  lost  by  the  air  gasogene  only. 

The  decomposition  of  water  by  carbon  is  not  as  simple  as 
would  appear  from  the  equation 

HaO  +  C  =  CO  +  H,. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  fuel  of  the  gasogene  undergoes 
ordinary  combustion  on  account  of  air  being  present ;  while 
in  the  upper  portion  the  reaction  takes  place  between  the 
gaseous  products  formed  in  the  lower  portion  and  the  heated 
carbon.  The  carbonic  acid  is  then  in  contact  with  the  heated 
carbon  and  is  reduced  to  carbonic  oxide : 

C  +  CO,  =  2CO. 


IO4  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

Thus,  the  reaction  with  the  water  would  be 

5H,0  +  3C  =  2C03  +  CO  +  loH ; 

carbonic  acid  being  reduced  to  carbonic  oxide  in  the  final 
reaction,  as  in  the  case  with  the  air  gasogene. 

Nine  kilograms  of  aqueous  vapor  and  6  kilograms  of 
carbon  produce  I  kilogram  of  hydrogen  and  14  kilograms  of 
carbonic  oxide,  that  is,  a  mixed  gas  is  produced  containing 
about  one  half  its  volume  of  each  gas. 

One  cubic  metre  of  hydrogen  weighs  85.5  grams;  one  of 
carbonic  oxide,  1194  grams.  Then  the  volumes  occupied  by 
each  gas  would  be  11.69  f°r  hydrogen  and  11.13  f°r  car~ 
bonic  oxide,  or  51.23  per  cent  of  hydrogen  and  48.77  per 
cent  of  carbonic  oxide. 

From  the  foregoing  account,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  inter- 
mittent flow  is  a  cause  of  great  loss  of  caloric  in  the  working 
of  the  water  gasogene ;  but  when  a  gas  is  wanted  solely  for 
heating  at  high  temperatures,  it  may  be  obtained  by  a  mixed 
system  working  continuously.  The  gasogene  is  filled  with 
a  mixture  of  air  and  steam,  the  air  being  employed  in 
the  proper  proportion  to  keep  up  the  heat  necessary,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  furnish  by  the  combustion  of  part  of  the 
carbon,  the  number  of  calories  necessary  to  the  gasifica- 
tion of  the  other  part. 

We  have  seen  (page  103)  that  to  gasify  I  kilogram  of 
carbon  2367  calories  were  needed.  To  maintain  the  heat 
this  quantity  must  be  produced  by  the  action  of  the  air. 
Mixed  gases  are  poorer  than  water  gas,  as  they  contain  more 
nitrogen  and  carbonic  oxide  and  less  hydrogen.  Theo- 
retically, we  should  attain  the  result  of  furnishing  the  heat  to 
the  gasogene  necessary  to  maintain  the  temperature  by  sup- 
plying the  steam  sufficiently  superheated ;  a  gas  very  poor  in 
nitrogen  would  then  be  made.  But  the  superheating  of 
steam  causes  new  losses  of  heat. 


GASEOUS  FUELS. 


105 


NATURAL   GAS. 

Natural  gas  has  been  known  for  thousands  of  years  in 
Asia,  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  it  has  long  been  a  feature  in 
religious  services,  but  it  is  only  recently  that  it  has  become 
of  any  use  to  man  and  played  any  part  in  the  fuel  world. 

The  natural  gas  output  in  the  United  States  has  attracted 
considerable  attention  since  1875,  and  especially  since  1880. 
This  gas  always  accompanies  petroleum,  although  petroleum 
does  not  always  accompany  the  gas.  The  wells  are  situated 
in  various  portions  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Colorado,  Cal- 
ifornia, and  on  the  Canadian  side  also  in  numerous  locations. 

Natural  gas  is  not  of  a  constant  or  uniform  composition, 
varying  very  much  according  to  the  locality  from  which  it  is 
taken.  The  individual  constituent  gases  vary  between  wide 
limits,  hydrogen  at  some  places  being  almost  wanting,  while 
at  others  it  is  as  high  as  35  or  40  per  cent.  Marsh  gas  is  in 
every  case  the  principal  constituent,  but  this  runs  down  as 
low  as  40  per  cent  in  some  analyses.  Nitrogen  is  some- 
times absent,  and  when  present  in  large  amounts,  it  is  suppos- 
able  that  the  gas  analyzed  was  contaminated  with  atmospheric 
air. 

The  Ohio  and  Indiana  fields  yield  gas  of  nearer  a  uniform 
composition  than  any  of  the  others.  The  following  table  is 
typical : 


Ohio. 

Indiana. 

Fostoria. 

Findlay. 

St.Mary's 

Muncie. 

Anderson 

Kokomo. 

H  ydrogen  

I  89 

I  64 

I  Q/l 

2  ^S 

1.86 

1.42 

Q2  84 

Q<1     -1C 

cn  8s 

Q2  6? 

0-1.07 

Q4.l6 

o  20 

O2C 

O  47 

O  ^O 

O  ^1 

<-».  J3 
O  ^Q 

o.'ie. 

o.  *}S 

O.42 

0.30 

o.  tie. 

O  4.1 

0.4.4 

0.45 

0.73 

O.55 

o  20 

Ooe 

OO-J 

O  2S 

O.26 

O.2Q 

Nitrogen  

o  «2 

31  T 

2  98 

-5   eq 

•3    Q2 

2.8O 

Hydrogen  sulphide  

0.15 

0.2O 

O.2I 

0.15 

0.15 

0.18 

io6 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


In  addition  to  difference  in  composition  in  different  local- 
ities, the  composition  of  the  gas  varies  cons'derably  from 
time  to  time  in  each  well.  This  is  shown  by  the  following 
analyses  made  at  different  times  within  a  period  of  three 
months  from  a  well  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa. : 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

IA  AZ 

26  16 

C7  %e. 

7e   j6 

72  18 

5c  2^ 

^sy.Uj 
60  7O 

35-Q2 

AQ    ^8 

Olefiant  £ja.s     . 

o  80 

o  80 

OnS 

e  20 

4.  80 

360 

SCO 

7  02 

2   IO 

I  2O 

I   IO 

o  80 

078 

OSo 

I  OO 

O-5Q 

I  OO 

o  80 

O  ^8 

Carbonic  acid    

O  OO 

o  30 

o  80 

o  60 

Nitrogen  

2-J    /IT 

2  89 

O  OO 

O  OO 

The   quantity  of  gas  used  daily  in  the  town   of  Findlay, 
Ohio,  in  1 890,  was  estimated  by  Professor  Orton  to  be,  for 

Glass-furnaces 10000000  cubic  feet. 

Iron  mills 10000000     "        " 

Other  factories 6000000      "        " 

Domestic  use 4000000     "        " 


Total  per  day 30000000      "        " 

In  Indiana,  large  wells  have  been  opened  and  used  as  in? 
Ohio.  In  Pennsylvania,  several  of  the  large  rolling-mills  and 
glass-houses  near  Pittsburg  were  formerly  supplied  with  mill- 
ions of  feet  per  day ;  but  the  supply,  used  so  lavishly,  became 
exhausted.  In  Canada,  at  Fort  Erie  and  Windsor  are  wells, 
the  gas  from  which  is  piped  across  the  river  to  Buffalo  and 
Detroit  respectively.  All  through  the  oil  regions  gas  wells 
are  to  be  found  more  or  less,  accompanying  every  well  sunk. 

From  the  composition  of  the  gas,  it  will  readily  be  seen 
that  it  is  a  valuable  source  of  heat,  the  calorific  power  reach- 
ing 10000  calories  or  1 100  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot.  It  is  used 
for  domestic  purposes,  steam,  glass  making,  iron  mills,  brick 
burning,  and  numerous  other  ways,  and  until  recently  used 
wastefully  in  all. 


GASEOUS   FUELS.  1  07 

As  compared  with  coal,  57.25  pounds  of  coal  or  63  pounds 
of  coke  are  about  equal  to  1000  cubic  feet  of  the  gas.  The 
actual  equivalent  in  steaming  or  furnace  work  varies  with  the 
furnace,  and  probably  with  the  people  using  it.  Equivalent 
values  of  14000  to  25000  cubic  feet  per  ton  of  coal  are 
reported,  and  hardly  any  two  users  will  give  the  same  yield. 
It  seems  to  be  especially  adapted  to  glass  making,  giving  a 
long,  clean,  ashless,  smokeless  flame,  and  hundreds  of  glass- 
pots  were  set  up  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  wells,  especially 
in  Ohio.  Each  pot  consumes  from  58000  to  61000  cubic  feet 
per  24  hours  in  window-glass  works  and  from  31000  to  49000 
cubic  feet  in  flint-glass  works,  the  difference  being  of 
course  due  to  difference  in  burners  and  men,  the  gas  being 
the  same. 

In  all  cases  where  this  gas  is  used  the  chief  claim  made,  in 
addition  to  those  of  gases  generally,  has  been  cheapness,  and 
it  has  been  sold  without  any  regard  to  its  actual  value.  A 
comparison  of  its  value  with  that  of  other  gases  is  given  by 
McMillin  in  the  Report  of  the  Ohio  Geological  Survey,  vol. 
VI,  page  544,  as  follows  : 

1000  feet  natural  gas  will  evaporate.  .  .  .  893  pounds  of  water. 
"      "     coal          "      "  "         ____   591        "  " 

"      "     water       "      "  "         ____  262        "  " 

"      "     producer  gas  "  "         ____   115 


"  " 


OIL  GAS. 

There  are  several  processes  for  producing  gas  from  oil, 
usually  petroleum  or  its  derivatives.  Some  of  them  decom- 
pose the  oil  by  means  of  heat  alone,  while  others  use  steam, 
or  steam  and  air  together.  The  most  successful  pure  oil 
process  is  the  Pintsch  ;  this  is  used  extensively  in  the  large 
cities  of  Europe  and  America  to  obtain  a  gas  for  illuminating 
cars  on  railways.  The  gas  is  made  by  allowing  the  oil  to  fall 
drop  by  drop  on  a  strongly  heated  surface.  Complete  decom- 


I08  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

position  occurs,  and  a  gas  of  high  candle-power  is  formed. 
This  is  collected,  and  after  compression  supplied  to  the  con- 
sumers. It  loses  some  20  per  cent  of  the  illuminating  power 
during  compression.  As  a  source  of  heat,  its  use  is,  so  far, 
very  limited.  An  analysis  and  heat  test  will  be  found  in  the 
tables. 

The  Archer  gas  process  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  Pintsch, 
but  the  products  of  decomposition  are  generated  at  a  com- 
paratively low  temperature,  and  then  superheated  subse- 
quently so  as  to  make  the  gas  permanent.  This  gas  is  used 
for  metallurgical  purposes,  but  its  use  for  heating  boilers  is 
very  limited. 

The  other  gases  made  with  steam  or  steam  and  air  have 
been  advertised  or  pushed  as  fuel  gases  for  several  years. 
Many  plants  have  been  established  and  failed.  A  few  of  the 
most  prominent  are  mentioned  in  the  tables. 

OTHER  GASES. 

Gas  has  been  obtained  from  destructive  distillation  of 
wood,  rosin,  fats,  and  other  materials.  They  were  used  prin- 
cipally for  illumination,  and  seldom  if  ever  for  heat.  They 
are  now  made  only  in  very  exceptional  cases. 


CHAPTER    X. 

CALORIFIC   POWER   OF  COAL   BURNT    UNDER 
A   STEAM-BOILER. 

FUEL    USED    AND    WATER    EVAPORATED. 
DISTRIBUTION    OF   THE    HEAT    PRODUCED.  , 

EXPERIMENTS  in  heating  steam-boilers  have  to  deter- 
mine : 

1.  How  much  water  is  vaporized  by  a  given  quantity  oif 
coal,  so  as  to  compare  it  with  other  coals  or  fuels; 

2.  The  evaporative  power  of  the  steam-boiler  used; 

3.  A  comparison  of  the  various  styles  of  grates  or  meth- 
ods of  heating  applied  to  steam-boilers. 

In  this  book  we  will  consider  only  the  first  case,  th'e 
others  being  outside  of  its  scope. 

The  knowledge  of  the  heat  of  combustion  of  coal  and 
other  fuels  is  closely  connected  with  experiments  in  heating 
steam-boilers.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  the  proportion  of 
water  which  the  apparatus  or  the  fuel  tested  will  vaporize : 
we  must  also  determine  the  number  of  calories  lost.  We 
must  know,  besides,  the  composition  of  the  coal  and  its  heat 
of  combustion,  to  determine  the  proportion  of  calories  used  to 
that  possible  with  perfect  combustion. 

The-  first  work  in  this  direction  worth  mentioning  was 
probably  that  done  by  Peclet  in  1833,  but  his  results  were 
very  crude,  and  are  of  no  account  now.  The  next  were  those 
made  by  Prof.  Johnson,  in  1842  and  1843,  for  the  U.  S. 
Navy  Department,  to  determine  the  steaming  powers  of  the 

109 


110  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

coals  then  in  use.  He  analyzed  and  tested  some  thirty-five 
different  coals,  domestic  and  foreign.  The  tests  were  made 
with  a  specially  built  boiler,  and  careful  and  copious  notes 
were  taken  all  through.  The  chimney  gases  were  analyzed, 
and  an  attempt  made  to  determine  their  quantity.  In  1891 
Mr.  W.  Kent*  reviewed  his  work,  and  found  that,  with  correc- 
tions for  the  constants  employed  by  Johnson,  the  tests  were 
comparable  with  those  made  at  the  present  time.  The 
figures  given  in  the  tables  as  Johnson's  are  with  Kent's 
corrections. 

The  first  experiments  based  on  the  knowledge  of  the 
composition  and  heat  of  combustion  of  coal  were  published 
in  1868  and  1869  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Socie'tt  Industrielle 
de  Mulhouse.  Scheurer-Kestner  remarks  in  the  first  part  of 
this  work,  which  he  prosecuted  later  on  with  assistance  of 
Meunier-Dollfus  (loc.  cit.  p.  i): 

"It  is  necessary  to  analyze  the  great  difference  found 
between  the  theoretical  heat  of  combustion  (at  that  time 
no  actual  determinations  had  been  made)  and  the  practical 
yield. 

"  Several  elements  of  the  calculation  aid  in  making  this 
shortage.  The  principal  ones  are  : 

"  The  heat  of  combustion  of  the  coal; 

"  The  composition  of  the  coal; 

"  The  composition  of  the  cinders  as  drawn  from  the 
ash-pit ; 

"The  quantity  of  water  vaporized  and  the  temperature 
of  the  steam  produced ; 

"  The  volume  of  gases  introduced  under  the  grate,  and 
their  temperature  when  they  leave  the -boiler  to  pass  into  the 
chimney ; 

"The  composition  of  the  gaseous  products  of  combus- 
tion ; 

*  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  Oct.  1891. 


WEIGHT   OF  FUEL.  1 1  I 

"The  temperature  of  the  cinders  at  the  time  of  dumping; 

11  The  loss  of  caloric  by  radiation  from  the  setting  of  the 
boiler." 

We  must  refer  to  mineral  and  organic  as  well  as  gas 
analysis  to  obtain  the  necessary  elements  for  the  distribution 
of  the  caloric  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  coal  on  a 
steam-boiler  grate. 

To  avoid  referring  to  them,  we  will  consider  the  composi- 
tion and  heat  of  combustion  of  coal  as  known.  (See  tables.) 

WEIGHT    OF    FUEL. 

The  coal  used  in  the  test  should  be  kept  under  cover 
away  from  moisture  and  heat,  so  that  the  hygroscopic  water 
it  contains  shall  vary  as  little  as  possible  from  the  time  of 
taking  the  sample.  Weigh  the  coal  in  the  gross,  and  then 
weigh  portions  of  about  100  kilograms  (220  Ibs.)  on  a  scale 
sensible  to  T^. 

Where  practicable,  a  box  open  at  the  top  and  holding 
500  pounds  of  coal  should  be  provided  for  each  25  square 
feet  grate  area,  and  in  proportion  for  larger  grates.  It 
should  be  placed  on  the  scales,  and  conveniently  located  for 
shoveling  into  the  fire. 

The  exact  time  of  weighing  should  be  noted  and  the 
exact  weight  set  down.  The  weight  should  be  taken  at  the 
instant  of  closing  the  fire-door.  The  box  should  be  com- 
pletely emptied  each  time.  The  difference  of  weight  at  each 
firing  will  give  the  several  quantities  fired ;  the  differences  of 
time  will  give  the  intervals  between  firing;  and  the  differ- 
ence of  time  between  successive  charges  will  serve  as  a  check 
on  the  record  of  the  test.  A  chart  or  diagram  should  be 
made  showing  the  regularity  of  the  working,  and  it  is  well  to 
keep  the  records  in  tabular  form ;  weights  in  one  column,  time 
in  another. 


112  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

SAMPLING   THE    COAL. 

In  all  experiments  for  determining  heat  of  combustion  of 
fuels,  the  sampling  must  be  done  with  the  utmost  care,  espe- 
cially if  the  laboratory  and  working  test  are  to  be  made  at 
the  same  time.  Samples  accurately  representing  the  coal  of 
the  working  test  must  be  kept  in  the  laboratory,  and  when 
coal  is  tested  which  contains  foreign  matter  and  considerable 
moisture,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  prevent  errors. 

The  official  method  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  is  given  in  the  Appendix,  and  answers  the  purpose 
very  well.  If  very  large  quantities  are  to  be  sampled,  remove 
a  portion  from  each  cart-load  and  then  re-sample  these  as  per 
directions  above  mentioned. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  to  resort  to  these  methods. 
When  the  coal  comes  from  the  same  pit  and  level,  experience 
has  shown  that  a  piece  which  seems  to  agree  with  the  general 
character  is  usually  sufficient.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
samples  having  too  much  hanging-wall  or  bed-rock.  For 
twenty  years  the  pure  coal  of  Ronchamp  taken  from  the 
same  pit  has  given  the  same  calorimetric  test,  when  it  con- 
tained from  10  to  20  per  cent  of  ash.  Lord  and  Haas* 
showed  that  the  same  was  true  of  many  American  mines, 
especially  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  This  being  true,  we 
could  consider  that  in  sampling  we  did  not  sample  the  coal, 
but  the  impurities ;  and  that  a  sample  showing  the  average 
impurities  would  give  all  that  was  needed,  as  we  would  know 
what  the  coal  was. 

Care  must  be  taken  with  regard  to  the  moisture,  and  any 
coal  showing  much  external  moisture  must  be  examined  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  original  condition.  For  example,  a 
coal  containing  10  per  cent  of  moisture  in  the  pile  may,  after 
sampling,  crushing,  and  resampling,  lose  all  but  4  or  5  per 
cent.  If  the  moisture  was  determined  in  this  coal  while  in  as 

*  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.    Eng.,  Feb.  1897. 


ANALYSIS   OF  COAL.  1 13 

large  pieces  as  possible,  this  moisture  would  all  be  accounted 
for. 

In  spite  of  all  precautions,  samples  do  not  always  agree  in 
mineral  content  with  the  mass.  The  difference  seems  to  be  due 
not  only  to  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  foreign  mineral 
matter  throughout  the  coal,  but  principally  to  the  difference 
in  specific  gravity  between  the  coal  and  this  mineral,  so  that 
the  purer  the  coal  the  more  satisfactory  the  sampling. 

Sometimes  a  coal  is  rich  in  foreign  matter,  and  is  contained 
in  a  tube  open  at  one  end.  From  this  samples  may  be  drawn 
showing  differences  of  several  per  cents;  as  for  example,  12.49 
and  16.74  per  cent  obtained  in  two  successive  cases.  The 
following  experiment  shows  how  this  happens  and  how  to 
prevent  it:  30  grams  of  coal,  finely  pulverized,  and  contain- 
ing 20  per  cent  of  mineral,  was  put  into  a  glass  tube,  which 
was  closed  with  a  cork  and  placed  vertically,  giving  it  slight 
taps  to  settle  it  down.  In  a  short  time  most  of  the  foreign 
material  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  the  upper  portion 
being  nearly  free.  To  avoid  such  an  error  the  sample  must 
be  drawn  only  after  thorough  mixing,  and  without  any  shaking 
or  jarring  of  the  tube.  It  is  well  to  use  pastilles  made  up 
immediately  after  thorough  mixing.  A  sample  containing 
only  13  to  14  per  cent  of  foreign  matter  has  given  from  a 
tube,  12.20,  12. 81,  13.12,  13.50,  14.42  per  cent. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    COAL. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  treat  the  methods  of  ana- 
lyzing coal ;  still,  as  this  usually  accompanies  a  calorimetric 
determination,  some  hints  may  be  useful.  Scheurer-Kestner 
usually  burns  the  coal  in  tubes  of  white  glass  placed  on  an 
iron  gutter.  The  same  tube  may  thus  serve  several  times  if 
asbestos  cloth  be  placed  between  the  tube  and  the  iron  and 
the  cooling  be  properly  regulated.  His  tubes  are  70  to  75 
centimetres  (27  to  29  inches)  long  and  15  to  20  millimetres 


114  CALORiriC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

(0.6  to  O.8  inch)  inside  diameter.  They  are  filled  with  copper 
oxide  in  small  pieces,  except  at  the  front  end,  which  has  a 
small  piece  of  metallic  copper,  and  at  the  back,  where  the 
platinum  boat  containing  the  coal  is  placed.  Usually  half  a 
gram  is  used  for  a  test,  the  coal  having  been  previously  dried 
at  100°  to  105°  C.  (212°  to  221°  F.). 

Before  putting  in  the  sample  the  tube  is  heated  to  redness 
and  thoroughly  dried  by  means  of  a  current  of  dry  oxygen. 
The  combustion  is  carried  on  so  as  to  allow  time  enough  for 
all  the  gas  to  be  absorbed  by  the  potash,  during  the  first  half 
of  the  time  the  bubbles  passing  through  very  slowly.  There 
is  no  risk  then  of  unburnt  gases  passing  off.  An  iron  or  a 
platinum  tube  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  glass  one,  but  glass 
allows  inspection  at  all  times. 

An  analysis  should  show  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  ash,  and  moisture,  and  they  should  be  so 
given  that  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur, 
and  ash  should  equal  100  per  cent,  the  moisture  being 
determined  separately,  or  if  preferred  all  but  ash  and  moisture 
may  foot  up  100,  and  those  two  be  given  separately.  This 
latter  method  is  the  one  which  is  followed  by  many  of  the 
European  engineers,  and  will  be  found  so  in  the  tables  given 
at  the  end  of  this  book.  If  possible  the  approximate  analysis 
should  also  be  given. 

In  determining  the  moisture  too  much  care  cannot  be 
taken  to  expel  all  of  it.  With  many  coals,  and  especially  our 
Western  ones,  the  ordinary  heating  to  110°  C.  is  not  suffi- 
cient. Kent,  Carpenter,  Hale,  and  others  have  investigated 
this  question,  and  find  that  a  much  higher  temperature  is 
needed,  and  must  be  employed.  In  some  cases  as  high  as 
140°  to  150°  C.  may  be  used  with  safety,  and  such  tempera- 
tures are  recommended  by  Carpenter,  no  appreciable  amount 
of  volatile  matter  being  driven  off. 


DURATION  OF   THE    TEST. 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    CINDERS. 

The  cinders  and  ashes  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the 
coal  are  collected  so  as  to  weigh  and  sample  them.  After 
drying  and  determining  the  water  the  sample  is  put  into  a 
glass  tube  as  with  coal.  As  the  quantity  of  hydrogen  is 
usually  very  small,  it  need  not  be  determined,  and  the 
calcination  for  the  carbon  can  be  performed  in  the  open  air. 
The  following  table  contains  the  results  of  the  tests  made 
by  Scheurer-Kestner  and  Meunier-Dollfus  on  steam-boiler 
cinders : 


.1 

2 

3 

4 

Carbon  

Q  2O 

12  65 

6  7-* 

8  92 

Hydrogen  .... 

O  "37 

O  2Q 

O  21 

O  27 

Ash  

80  Q^ 

86  50 

Q2  6d 

QI  42 

99-52 

99-44 

99-58 

99.61 

The  proportion  of  carbon  in  cinders  may  be  as  low  as  7 
per  cent,  but  is  usually  higher,  and  10  to  12  per  cent  may  be 
called  good  practice. 

DURATION    OF   THE    TEST. 

A  test  should  continue  at  least  a  whole  day  on  account  of 
certain  irregularities  and  causes  of  error  which  are  constant. 
The  level  of  the  water  should  be  the  same  at  the  end  of  the 
test  as  at  the  beginning,  since  a  slight  difference  in  level 
means  considerable  water. 

The  condition  of  the  combustion  at  the  time  of  stopping 
cannot  always  be  ascertained,  and  this  produces  a  cause  of 
uncertainty.  Another  cause  is  from  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  boiler,  and  especially  in  the  economizer.  On 
short  runs  these  sources  of  error  cause  very  faulty  results. 


Il6  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF 


THE    WATER   EVAPORATED. 

The  feed-water  is  preferably  held  in  a  gauged  reservoir,  or 
else  weighed,  meters  not  being  certain  unless  checked  fre- 
quently. Use  only  cold  water  or  water  whose  temperature 
will  vary  but  little  during  the  test,  so  as  to  avoid  corrections 
of  temperature  and  expansion.  The  temperature  usually 
varies  so  little  that  no  account  of  this  variation  need  be  taken. 
Pump  to  the  boiler  with  as  much  regularity  as  possible,  and 
keep  accurate  record. 

To  have  the  same  level  at  the  end  as  at  the  beginning, 
keep  up  the  initial  pressure  and  feed  very  carefully.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  feed-water  is  referred  to  o°  C.,  con- 
sidering that  the  specific  heat  is  constant.  Otherwise  we  may 
use  Regnault's  formula, 

Q  =  t  —  0.00002^  -j-  o.oooooo3/s. 

But  when  the  temperature  of  the  water  varies  no  more  than 
10  degrees,  no  appreciable  error  will  be  made  by  calling  f 
equal  to  the  temperature. 

TEMPERATURE    OF    THE    STEAM. 

We  may  measure  the  temperature  of  the  steam  directly  by 
a  thermometer  in  the  boiler,  or  indirectly  by  observing  the 
pressure.  Both  methods  should  be  used.  • 

To  take  the  temperature  directly,  the  thermometer  is 
placed  in  an  iron  tube  closed  at  one  end  and  reaching  to  the 
middle  of  the  boiler.  The  tube  should  be  filled  with  paraffin 
or  some  analogous  substance.  The  temperature  of  the 
steam  or  the  water  may  be  taken  as  desired  by  changing  the 
position  of  the  thermometer  in  the  tube.  See  Figure  39. 
Vertical  maximum  and  minimum  thermometers  are  very  use- 
ful, preventing  too  hasty  observations. 


MOISTURE  JN   THE   STEAM.  I  I/ 

To  measure  the  temperature  by  pressure  an  air-thermom- 
eter is  used.  A  registering  manometer  aids  the  work  consid- 
erably, as  observations  should  be  taken  regularly  at  frequent 
and  equal  intervals.  The  temperature  is  calculated  by  means 
of  tables  of  vapor-tension.* 

MOISTURE    IN    THE    STEAM. 

The  percentage  of  moisture  should  be  ascertained  by 
means  of  a  throttling  or  a  separating  calorimeter,  directions 
for  the  use  of  which  will  be  furnished  by  the  makers.  They 
should  easily  and  completely  separate  the  water  in  a  manner 
convenient  for  measuring,  or  better,  for  weighing.  It  is  ad- 
visable to  use  two  or  three  at  the  same  time,  thus  serving  as 
checks  for  each  other. 

"The  throttling  steam-calorimeter  was  first  described  by 
Professor  Peabody  in  the  Transactions^  vol.  X.  page  327, 
and  its  modifications  by  Mr.  Barrus,  vol.  XI.  page  790;  vol. 
XVII.  page  617;  and  by  Professor  Carpenter,  vol.  xil.  page 
840 ;  also  the  separating-calorimeter  designed  by  Professor 
Carpenter,  vol.  XVII,  page  608.  These  instruments  are  used 
to  determine  the  moisture  existing  in  a  small  sample  of  steam 
taken  from  the  steam-pipe,  and  give  results,  when  properly 
handled,  which  may  be  accepted  as  accurate  within  0.5  per 
cent  (this  percentage  being  computed  on  the  total  quantity  of 
the  steam)  for  the  sample  taken.  The  possible  error  of  0.5 
per  cent  is  the  aggregate  of  the  probable  error  of  careful  ob- 
servation, and  of  the  errors  due  to  inaccuracy  of  the  pressure- 
gauges  and  thermometers;  to  radiation;  and,  in  the  case  of 
the  throttling-calorimeter,  to  the  possible  inaccuracy  of  the 
figure  0.48  for  the  specific  heat  of  superheated  steam,  which 

*  For  full  details  regarding  setting  up  an  open-air  manometer,  see  paper 
by  Scheurer-Kestner  and  Meunier-Dollfus  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe"  in- 
dustrielle  de  Mulhouse,  1869,  page  241;  also  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  £.,  vol.  vi. 
pages  281  and  282. 

f  Transactions  A.  S.  M.  E. 


U  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

is  used  in  computing  the  results.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means 
certain  that  the  sample  represents  the  average  quality  of  the 
steam  in  the  pipe  from  which  the  sample  is  taken.  The  prac- 
tical impossibility  of  obtaining  an  accurate  sample,  especially 
when  the  percentage  of  moisture  exceeds  two  or  three  per 
cent,  is  shown  in  the  two  papers  by  Professor  Jacobus  in 
Transactions,*  vol.  XVI.  pages  448,  1017. 

"  In  trials  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  horizontal  shell  and  of 
water-tube  boilers,  in  which  there  is  a  large  disengaging  sur- 
face, when  the  water-level  is  carried  at  least  10  inches  below 
the  level  of  the  steam  outlet,  and  when  the  water  is  not  of  a 
character  to  cause  foaming,  and  when  in  the  case  of  water- 
tube  boilers  the  steam  outlet  is  placed  in  the  rear  of  the  mid- 
dle of  the  length  of  the  water-drum,  the  maximum  quantity 
of  moisture  in  the  steam  rarely,  if  ever,  exceeds  two  per  cent ; 
and  in  such  cases  a  sample  taken  with  the  precautions  speci- 
fied in  article  XIII.  of  the  Code  may  be  considered  to  be  an 
accurate  average  sample  of  the  steam  furnished  by  the  boiler, 
and  its  percentage  of  moisture  as  determined  by  the  throttling 
or  separating  calorimeter  may  be  considered  as  accurate  within 
one  half  of  one  per  cent.  For  scientific  research,  and  in  all 
cases  in  which  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  the  moisture 
may  exceed  two  per  cent,  a  steam-separator  should  be  placed 
in  the  steam-pipe,  as  near  to  the  steam  outlet  of  the  boiler  as 
convenient,  well  covered  with  felting,  all  the  steam  made  by 
the  boiler  passing  through  it,  and  all  the  moisture  caught  by 
it  carefully  weighed  after  being  cooled.  A  convenient  method 
of  obtaining  the  weight  of  the  drip  from  the  separator  is  to 
discharge  it  through  a  trap  into  a  barrel  of  cold  water  stand- 
ing on  a  platform  scale.  A  throttling  or  a  separating  calo- 
rimeter should  be  placed  in  the  steam-pipe,  just  beyond  the 
steam-separator,  for  the  purpose  of  determining,  by  the 
sampling  method,  the  small  percentage  of  moisture  which 
may  still  be  in  the  steam  after  passing  through  the  separator. 
*  Transactions  A.  S.  M.  E. 


QUALITY   OF  STEAM.  119 

"  The   formula   for  calculating  the  percentage  of  moisture 
when  the  throttling-calorimeter  is  used  is  the  following: 

H-  h-  k(T-t\ 
w=ioox-  -£-          -, 

in  which  w  —  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  steam,  H  =  total 
heat  and  L  —  latent  heat  per  pound  of  steam  at  the  pressure  in 
the  steam-pipe,  h  =  total  heat  per  pound  of  steam  at  the  pres- 
sure in  the  discharge  side  of  the  calorimeter,  k  =  specific  heat 
of  superheated  steam,  T=  temperature  of  the  throttled  and 
superheated  steam  in  the  calorimeter,  and  t  =  temperature 
due  to  the  pressure  in  the  discharge  side  of  the  calorimeter,  = 
212°  Fahr.  at  atmospheric  pressure.  Taking  £  =  0.48  and 
t  —  212,  the  formula  reduces  to 

H '  —  1146.6  —  0.48(7—  212)*  „ 


CORRECTIONS    FOR   QUALITY   OF    STEAM. f 

Given  the  percentage  of  moisture  or  number  of  degrees  of 
superheating,  it  is  desirable  to  develop  formulae  showing  what 
we  have  termed  ' '  the  factor  of  correction  for  quality  of  steam, " 
or  the  factor  by  which  the  * '  apparent  evaporation,"  determined 
by  a  boiler-test,  is  to  be  multiplied  to  obtain  the  ''evaporation 
corrected  for  quality  of  steam."  It  has  been  customary  to  call 
the  proportional  weight  of  steam  in  a  mixture  of  steam  and 
water  "the  quality  of  the  steam,"  and  it  is  not  desirable  to 
change  this  designation.  The  same  term  applies  when  the 
steam  is  superheated  by  employing  the  "equivalent  evapora- 
tion," or  that  obtained  by  adding  to  the  actual  evaporation  the 

*  William  Kent  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Boiler-tests,  A.  S. 
M.  E. ,  1897. 

f  C.  E.  Emery  in  the  Report  of  Committee  on  Boiler-tests,  A.  S.  M.  E., 
1897. 


120  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

proportional  weight  of  water  which  the  thermal  value  of  the 
superheating  would  evaporate  into  dry  steam  from  and  at  the 
temperature  due  to  the  pressure.  "The  factor  of  correction 
for  quality  of  steam  "  in  a  boiler-test  differs  from  the  '  *  quality  " 
itself,  from  the  fact  that  the  temperature  of  the  feed-water 
is  lower  than  that  of  the  steam. 
Let 

Q  =  quality  of  moist  steam  as  described  above ; 
Qi  =1  the  quality  of  superheated  steam  as  described  above ; 
P  —  the  proportion  of  moisture  in  the  steam ; 
k  =  the  number  of  degrees  of  superheating; 
F  =  the   factor  of  correction   for  the   quality   of  the   steam 

when  the  steam  is  moist  • 
FI  =  the   factor  of  correction    for  the  quality   of  the   steam 

when  the  steam  is  superheated ; 

H  •=•  the  total  heat  of  the  steam  due  to  the  steam-pressure; 
L  =  the  latent  heat  of  the  steam  due  to  the  steam-pressure ; 
T  =  the  temperature  of  the  steam  due  to  the  steam-pressure  ; 
7",  =  the  total  heat  in  the  water  at  the  temperature  due  to 

the  steam-pressure;* 
J  =  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water; 
Jl  —  the  total  heat  in  the  feed-water  due  to  the  temperature.* 

Therefore,  for  moist  steam, 

Q  =  i  -  P,     ......     (i) 

P=i-  Q,     .     .    ,    .     ...    (2) 

Q+P=  i.  .  .  .  .  'r .  (3) 

See  also  equation  (6). 

*  Most  tables  of  the  properties  of  steam  and  of  water  are  based  on  the 
total  heat  of  steam  and  water  above  32  degrees  Fahr.  For  such  tables  the 
total  heat  in  the  water  at  a  given  temperature  is  equal  approximately  to 
the  corresponding  temperature  minus  32  degrees.  Exact  values  should, 
however,  be  taken  from  the  tables. 


QUALITY   OF  STEAM.  121 

With  both  the  condensing  and  throttling  calorimeters  the 
water  and  steam  are  withdrawn  from  the  boiler  at  the  temper- 
ature of  the  steam,  and  with  a  separator  the  water  can  only  be 
accurately  measured  when  underpressure,  so  that  the  difference 
between  the  steam  and  the  moisture  in  the  steam,  as  they  leave 
the  boiler,  is  simply  that  the  former  has  received  the  latent 
heat  due  to  the  pressure,  and  the  latter  has  not.  There  is, 
however,  imparted  to  the  water  in  the  boiler  not  only  the 
latent  heat  in  the  portion  evaporated,  but  the  sensible  heat 
due  to  raising  the  temperature  of  all  the  water  from  that  of 
the  feed  -water  to  that  of  the  steam  due  to  the  pressure. 

In  equation  (3)  the  proportional  part  Q  receives  from  the 
boiler  both  the  sensible  and  the  latent  heat,  or  the  total  heat 
above  the  temperature  of  the  feed  =  Q(H  —  /,)  thermal  units, 
and  the  part  Pthc  difference  in  sensible  heat  between  the  tem- 
peratures of  the  steam  and  of  the  feed-water  —  P(Tl  —  J^} 
thermal  units.  If  all  the  water  were  evaporated,  each  pound 
would  receive  the  total  heat  in  the  steam  above  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  feed,  or  H  —  /,.  "  The  factor  of  correction  for 
the  quality  of  the  steam,"  when  there  is  no  superheating,  is 
therefore 


The  superheating  of  the  steam  requires  0.48  of  a  thermal 
unit  for  each  degree  the  temperature  of  the  steam  is  raised, 
so  for  k  degrees  of  superheating  there  will  be  0.48^  thermal 
-anits  per  pound  weight  of  steam,  and  the  "  factor  of  correc- 
tion for  the  quality  of  the  steam  "  with  superheating. 

Q.481 


See  also  equation  (7). 


122  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

With  the  throttling-calorimeter  the  percentage  of  moisture 
P,  or  number  of  degrees  of  superheating,  are  determined  as 
explained  before. 

Since  the  invention  of  the  throttling-calorimeter  the  use 
of  the  original  condensing,  or  so-ealled  barrel,  calorimeter  is 
no  longer  warranted.  Accurate  results  should,  however,  be 
obtained  by  condensing  all  the  steam  generated  in  the  boiler, 
and  this  plan  has  been  followed  in  certain  cases.  It  has, 
therefore,  been  thought  desirable  to  add  other  formulae  ap- 
plicable to  condensing-calorimeters.  The  following  additional 
notation  is  required: 

W=  the  original  weight  of  the  water  in  calorimeter,  or 
weight  of  circulating  water  for  a  surface  condenser. 

w  =  the  weight  of  water  added  to  the  calorimeter  by  blow- 
ing steam  into  the  water,  or  of  "  water  of  condensation  "  with 
a  surface  condenser. 

t  =  total  heat  of  water  corresponding  to  initial  tempera- 
ture of  water  in  calorimeter. 

/,  =  total  heat  of  water  corresponding  to  final  temperature 
in  calorimeter. 

Evidently,  then : 

W(tl  —  /)  =  the  total  thermal  units  withdrawn  from  the 
boiler  and  imparted  to  the  water  in  calorimeter. 

W 
—  (t>  —  f]  =  the   thermal  units  per  pound  of  water  with- 

w  ^ 

drawn  from  the  boiler  and  imparted  to  the  water  in  calorim- 
eter, from  which  should  be  deducted  7",  —  /,  to  obtain  the 
number  of  thermal  units  per  pound  of  water  withdrawn  from 
the  boiler  at  the  pressure  due  to  the  temperature  T. 

Since  only  the  latent  heat  L  is  imparted  to  the  portion  of 
the  water  evaporated,  the  quality  <2,  or  proportional  quantity 
evaporated,  may  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  thermal 
units  per  pound  of  water  abstracted  at  the  pressure  due  to  the 
temperature  T  by  the  latent  heat  L.  Hence,  as  given  in 


QUALITY   OF  SUPERHEATED    STEAM.  123 

Appendix  XVII.,  1885  Code,  with  some  differences  in  nota- 
tion, 


<2and<2,  =  -^-/)-  (7;  -/,)•    •     •     (6) 

The  value  Q  applies  when  the  second  term  is  less  than 
unity.  P  may  be  derived  therefrom  by  substitution  in  equa- 
tion (2)  and  F  from  equation  (4). 

<24  applies  when  the  second  term  of  the  above  equation  is 
greater  than  unity,  which  shows  that  the  steam  is  superheated, 
and,  as  in  this  case,  the  heating  value  of  the  superheat  has 
already  been  measured  by  heating  the  water  of  the  calorim- 
eter; the  proportional  thermal  value  of  the  same,  in  terms 
of  the  latent  heat  Z,  is  represented  directly  by  Ql  —  I,  and 
we  have  as  the  factor  of  correction  for  the  quality  of  the  steam 
with  superheating, 


ll_ 
'"  H-J,  H-J,  '     ' 

See  also  equation  (5). 

When  the  quality  is  greater  than  I,  or  equals  Ql  ,  the  num- 
ber of  degrees  of  superheating, 


-      .     (8) 


THE    QUALITY    OF   SUPERHEATED    STEAM.* 

The  quality  of  the  superheated  steam  is  determined  from 
the  number  of  degrees  of  superheating  by  using  the  following 
formula : 

_  £  +  0.48(7--*) 


*  G.  H.  Barrus   in  Report  of  Committee  on    Boiler-tests,  A.  S.  M.  E., 
1897. 


124  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

iii  which  L  is  the  latent  heat  in  British  thermal  units  in  one 
pound  of  steam  of  the  observed  pressure ;  T  the  observed 
temperature,  and  /  the  normal  temperature  due  to  the  pres- 
sure. This  normal  temperature  should  be  determined  by  ob- 
taining a  reading  of  the  thermometer  when  the  fires  are  in  a 
dead  condition  and  the  superheat  has  disappeared.  This  tem- 
perature being  observed  when  the  pressure  as  shown  by  the 
gauge  is  the  average  of  the  readings  taken  during  the  trial, 
observations  being  made  by  the  same  instrument,  errors  of 
gauge  or  thermometer  are  practically  eliminated. 

DETERMINATION     OF     THE    MOISTURE    IN    STEAM    FLOWING 
THROUGH   A   HORIZONTAL   PIPE.* 

In  some  cases  it  is  impossible  to  place  the  sampling 
nozzle  in  a  vertical  steam-pipe  rising  from  the  boiler  as 
recommended  in  Article  XIV.  of  the  Rules  for  Steam- 
boiler  Trials,  f  When  this  is  the  case  and  it  is  possible 
to  connect  to  a  horizontal  steam-pipe  the  arrangement  of 
throttling  calorimeters  shown  in  Fig.  2jg  gives  satisfactory 
results. 

The  calorimeter  A  is  attached  to  the  separator  G,  which 
is  in  turn  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  steam-pipe  by  the 
nipple  D.  The  nipple  D  is  made  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the 
pipe.  The  calorimeter  B  is  attached  to  a  nozzle  having  no 
side  holes,  which  passes  through  the  stuffing-box  E.  This 
nozzle  is  adjustable  so  that  the  steam  can  be  drawn  from  any 
height  in  the  pipe.  When  in  its  lowest  position  it  is  flush 
with  the  bottom  of  the  pipe.  The  calorimeter  C  is  attached 
to  the  perforated  nipple  F.  The  calorimeters  are  placed  at 
some  distance  from  an  elbow  or  bend,  so  that  if  there  is 
moisture  in  the  steam  it  tends  to  run  along  the  bottom  of  the 

*  By  Prof.  D.  S.  Jacobus.  f  See  page  186. 


DETERMINATION  OF   THE   MOISTURE   IN  STEAM. 


pipe.      This  moisture  will  flow  into  the  nipple  D  and  collect 
in  the  separator  G.      Nearly  all  the  moisture  may  sometimes 


be  drawn  out  in  this  way,  and  if  the  calorimeters  B  and  C  in- 
dicate dry  steam,  the  weight  of  moisture  collected  in  G  rep- 
resents the  entire  moisture  in  the  steam.  The  three  calorim- 
eters are  all  covered  in  the  same  way  to  diminish  radiation, 
and  the  normal  reading  of  the  thermometers  /  and  J  used  in 
the  calorimeters  B  and  C  can  ordinarily  be  obtained  by  plac- 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

ing  them  in  the  calorimeter  A.  The  perforated  nipple  F 
serves  to  show  that  there  is  no  moisture  distributed  through 
the  steam,  and  in  the  case  of  a  sudden  belch  of  moisture  it 
will  indicate  the  same.  Barrus  calorimeters  were  used  in  our 
tests,  and  the  calorimeter  A,  combined  with  the  separator  Gy 
forms  in  reality  a  Barrus  Universal  Calorimeter.  With  a 
properly  constructed  separator,  the  steam  passing  through  the 
calorimeter  A  will  be  practically  dry  with  as  high  as  sixty 
pounds  of  moisture  drawn  from  the  separator  per  hour,  and, 
until  this  limit  is  exceeded,  the  normal  readings  of  the  ther- 
mometers used  in  the  calorimeters  B  and  C  may  be  obtained 
by  placing  them  in  the  calorimeter  A,  as  has  already  been 
stated. 

In  some  cases  the  calorimeter  C  is  omitted  and  the 
amount  of  moisture  is  determined  by  means  of  the  separator, 
with  the  adjustable  nozzle  at  E  and  the  separator  and  calo- 
rimeter A. 

The  percentage  of  priming  P  for  the  steam  passing  through 
the  calorimeters  B  and  C  is  given  by  the  formula 


where  P  =  the  percentage  of  priming ; 

N  =  the  normal  reading,  in  degrees  Fahrenheit,  ob- 
tained placing  the  thermometers  in  A  ; 

T  =  the  reading  when  placed  in  either  B  or  C\ 

L  =  the  latent  heat  at  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in 
the  steam  main  in  British  thermal  units  per 
pound. 

It    is    best    to     employ  the    normal     reading    in    calcula- 
ting the  moisture  corresponding  to  the  readings  of  a  throt- 


DETERMINATION  OF    THE   MOISTURE   IN  STEAM.      12^C 

tling  calorimeter.  The  radiation  of  the  calorimeter  must 
also  be  determined  by  a  separate  experiment,  and  allowed 
for.  When  the  normal  reading  is  taken  all  errors  of 
radiation  and  corrections  for  the  thermometers  are  elimi- 
nated, y 

The  normal  reading  should  be  obtained  either  by  connect- 
ing the  calorimeter  to  a  vertical  nipple,  with  no  side  holes, 
which  projects  upward  in  a  horizontal  steam-pipe,  in  which 
the  steam  is  in  a  quiescent  state,  or  it  should  be  obtained  by 
connecting  the  calorimeter  to  a  separator,  which  is  known 
to  remove  all  the  moisture.  The  normal  reading  should 
not  be  determined  when  the  calorimeter  is  attached  to  a 
horizontal  nipple  with  side  holes,  placed  in  a  vertical 
pipe,  because  should  this  be  done  the  readings  may  be  low 
on  account  of  moisture,  which  may  fall  through  the  steam 
and  cling  to  the  nozzle,  and,  finally,  be  drawn  into  the 
calorimeter. 

The  results  given  by  a  throttling  calorimeter  cannot  be 
relied  on  within  one-fifth  of  one  per  cent,  because  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  the  quality  of  the  "dead  steam" 
used  in  obtaining  the  normal  readings  may  vary  by  this 
amount.*  As  the  quality  of  the  "dead  steam"  may  not 
be  that  of  the  steam  used  by  Regnault  in  his  experiments, 
there  may  be  a  still  greater  error.  When  the  formula 
given  on  page  119  is  used  the  probable  error  is  not  eli- 
minated, for  a  study  of  Regnault's  experiments  shows 
that  the  value  used  in  the  formula  for  the  specific  heat 
of  superheated  steam  may  be  slightly  in  error  for  the  con- 
ditions involved  in  a  throttling  calorimeter.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  the  two  methods  of  computing  the 
moisture  agree  within  one-fifth  of  one  per  cent  when  the 
proper  corrections  are  made  for  radiation,  and  when  the 


*  Transactions  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  vol.  xvi.  p. 
466. 


CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

temperatures  are  reduced  to  the  equivalents  by  an  air 
thermometer.*  These  experiments  were  made  at  the 
single  pressure  of  80  Ibs.  per  square  inch  above  the  atmos- 
phere, and  it  has  not  been  shown  that  the  two  methods 
agree  within  this  amount  at  all  pressures,  but  as  there  should 
be  no  discrepancy  provided  the  specific  heat  factor  remains 
constant  for  the  conditions  involved,  it  is  probable  that  the 
two  methods  agree  very  nearly  with  each  other  at  all 
pressures,  f 

What  is  needed  are  tests  to  compare  the  quality  of 
"dead  steam  "with  the  quality  of  the  steam  used  in 
Regnault's  experiments,  and  until  this  is  done  throttling- 
calorimeter  results  cannot  be  relied  upon  within  one-fifth 
of  one  per  cent,  and  may  be  in  greater  error  than  this 
amount. 


COMBINED   CALORIMETER  AND   SEPARATOR.^ 

The  form  of  steam-calorimeter  termed  the  "  1895  pat- 
tern "  or  universal  steam-calorimeter  is  a  modification  of 
the  one  described  in  the  Transactions  Am.  Soc.  Mech. 
Eng.,  vol.  XL  page  790.  It  is  illustrated  in  the  accompany- 
ing cut,  which  is  reprinted  from  vol.  XVII.  page  618,  of  the 
same  Transactions.  It  consists  of  a  throttling  calorimeter 
and  separator  combined,  the  latter  being  attached  to  the 
outlet  where  the  steam  of  atmospheric  pressure  is  escap- 
ing. If  the  moisture  is  too  great  to  be  determined  by  the 


*  Transactions  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  vol.  xvi.  p. 
460. 

fit  must  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  the  specific  heat  of  steam  is  the 
same  at  all  pressures.  On  the  contrary,  Jacobus's  experiments  show  that 
this  is  not  the  case. 

\  By  George  H.  Barrus. 


COMBINED    CALORIMETER  AND    SEPARATOR. 

readings    of   the   two    thermometers,   the    separator    catches 
the   balance,   and    the    total    quantity    of    moisture    is    made 


FIG.  27-%. — COMBINED  CALORIMETER  AND  SEPARATOR. 


up  in  part  of  that  shown  by  the  thermometers,  and  in  part 
of  that  collected  from  the  separator.  The  percentage  of 
moisture  shown  by  the  thermometers  is  obtained  by  refer- 
ring the  indication  of  the  lower  thermometer  to  the  normal 
reading  of  that  thermometer  with  dry  steam,  and  dividing 
the  fall  of  temperature  by  the  constant  of  the  instrument 
for  one  per  cent  of  moisture.  The  normal  reading  is 
determined  by  observing  the  indications  when  steam  in  the 
main  pipe  is  in  a  quiescent  state,  and  the  constant  is  a 
quantity  varying  from  21  degrees  at  80  pounds  pressure  to 
2O  degrees  at  200  pounds  pressure.  The  percentage  of 


I24/  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

moisture,  if  any,  discharged  from  the  separator,  is  found  by 
dividing  its  quantity  corrected  for  radiation  by  the  total 
quantity  of  steam  and  water  passing  through  the  instru- 
ment in  the  same  time,  as  ascertained  by  experiment,  and 
multiplying  the  result  by  100. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

AIR  SUPPLIED   AND  GASEOUS   PRODUCTS  OF  COM- 
BUSTION. 

VOLUME    OF   AIR   NECESSARY    TO    COMBUSTION. 

Four  elements  are  to  be  considered  in  calculating  the 
theoretical  volume  of  air  for  combustion:  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  sulphur.  The  last  is  sometimes  wanting  in  coal,  but 
not  usually. 

Carbon, — The  atomic  weights  of  carbon  and  oxygen  are 
-as  12  and  16,  and  2  atoms  of  oxygen  are  needed  to  form  car- 
bonic acid  with  I  atom  of  carbon.  Then 

12  :  32  =  i  :  2.666. 

I  kilogram  of  oxygen  occupies  0.699  cubic  metre  (Table  IV); 
i  kilogram  of  carbon  needs 

0.699  X  2.666  =  1.863  cubic  metres  of  oxygen. 

Hydrogen. — The  atomic  weights  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
being  respectively  i  and  1 6,  and  water  being  formed  of  2 
atoms  of  hydrogen  and  i  of  oxygen,  we  have 

2  :  16  =  i  :  8; 

and  as  I  kilogram  of  oxygen  occupies  0.699  cubic  metre,  I 
kilogram  of  hydrogen  requires 

8  X  0.699  =  5-592  cubic  metres  of  oxygen. 

125 


126  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

Sulphur. — The  atomic  weights  of  sulphur  and  oxygen 
being  as  32  to  16,  and  sulphurous  acid  containing  i  atom  of 
sulphur  and  2  atoms  of  oxygen,  we  have 

32  :  32  =  i  :  i. 

i   kilogram  of   oxygen   occupies  0.699   cubic  metre;    I  kilo- 
gram of  sulphur  needs,  then,  to  form  sulphurous  acid 

i  X  0.699  —  0-699  cubic  metre  of  oxygen. 

As  most  fuels  have  some  oxygen  in  their  composition,  we 
must  deduct  this  at  the  rate  of  0.699  cubic  metre  per  kilo- 
gram. 

Then  multiplying  these  results  by  4.77  (Table  XIV)  we 
obtain  the  number  of  cubic  metres  of  air  required. 

A  similar  method  of  calculation  will  give 

For  one  pound  of  carbon 29.86  cubic  feet  of  oxygen. 

"       "        "        "   hydrogen 89.60      "        "      "       " 

"      "        "        "   sulphur ii. 20      "        "      "       " 

As  an  example,  take  a  coal  containing  90$  C,  50  H,  3.50 
O,  o.  10  N,  and  O.50  S. 

C 0.900  X  1.863  =  1.677  cubic  metres. 

H 0.040X5.592=0.224 

S 0.005  X  0.699  —  0.003 

Total  oxygen i  .904 

O    . .  .0.035  X  0.699  =  0.024 

1.880 

i. 880  X  4-77  =  8.967  cubic   metres  of  air  per  kilogram  of 
coal;  or  143.98  cubic  feet  of  air  to  the  pound  of  coal. 

This  result  of  course  is  only  approximate,  as  complete 
combustion  is  not  attained  with  coal  and  solid  fuels.  With 
liquid  fuels,  and  especially  gases,  however,  the  combustion  is 
usually  complete. 


VOLUME    OF    WASTE    GASES  BY  ANALYSIS.  I2/ 

Tables  V  and  VI  gives  the  coefficients  to  be  employed  in 
the  calculations. 

Table  XIII  gives  the  theoretical  quantity  of  air  required 
for  the  combustion  of  various  fuels;  the  actual  quantity 
used  depends  on  the  conditions  of  firing,  fuel,  etc,  and  is 
seldom  less  than  twice  the  amount  shown  in  the  table,  except 
perhaps  with  gases. 

VOLUME    OF   WASTE    GASES    BY   ANALYSIS. 

For  a  long  time  efforts  have  been  made  to  determine  the 
quantity  of  air  used  by  comparison  of  the  analyses  of  the 
waste  gases  with  those  of  the  fuel  used.  Many  analyses 
have  been  published,  but  the  results  showed  so  little  regu- 
larity, and  were  so  contradictory  even,  that  it  was  impossible 
to  form  any  conclusion  further  than  that  waste  gases  from 
coal  may  contain  at  the  same  time  both  combustible  gas  and 
an  excess  of  air. 

Peclet,  in  1827,  published  the  first  analyses,  made  with 
samples  collected  from  a  boiler-stack  by  means  of  an  inverted 
flask  containing  water.  Ebelmen,  in  1844,  published  a 
memoir  on  the  composition  of  gases  from  industrial  furnaces. 
He  analyzed  the  gases  from  a  metallurgical  furnace,  the  gas 
being  collected  by  an  aspirator.  In  1847  Combes  made  a 
report  on  methods  of  burning  or  preventing  smoke,  giving 
analyses  by  Debette.  In  these  the  first  attempts  were  made 
to  obtain  average  samples,  they  being  drawn  at  certain  deter- 
mined stages  of  the  heat  and  the  fuel. 

In  1862  Commines  de  Marcilly  published  analyses  of 
gases  from  locomotives,  as  well  as  from  stationary  boilers, 
but  the  author  said  the  time  of  collection  lasted  only  a  few 
seconds.  In  1866  Cailletet  showed  that,  to  obtain  correct 
results,  the  gas  should  not  be  collected  till  somewhat  cooled ; 
otherwise,  on  account  of  dissociation,  a  larger  proportion  of 
combustible  gas  is  found  than  when  cooler. 

But,  on    account    of   the    defective    methods    of   sampling 


128  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

used,  no  conclusion  other  than  that  stated  above  can  be 
drawn  from  these  analyses,  and  no  possible  idea  can  be 
deduced  as  to  the  actual  composition  of  the  gases  as  a  whole. 
When  we  try  to  use  laboratory  methods  of  control  in  practi- 
cal workings,  the  first  necessity  is  to  obtain  correct  samples 
for  analysis,  that  is,  average  samples.  In  this  respect  all  the 
above -quoted  authors  are  deficient.  The  tests  made  by 
Scheurer-Kestner,  published  in  1868,  were  the  first  to  con- 
form to  this  requirement.  His  samples  were  drawn  by  a 
system  analogous  in  principle  to  that  described  for  sampling 
coal. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  to  resort  to  such  a  complicated 
operation  in  case  of  a  permanent  gas ;  samples  taken  from 
the  general  current  by  means  of  an  ordinary  aspirator  or  an 
oil-aspirator  (page  132)  will  usually  do  if  drawn  at  a  sufficient 
distance  from  the  fire.  If  the  gases  have  passed  through  a 
long  flue,  especially  one  with  several  bends,  they  are  suffi- 
ciently mixed,  and  may  be  considered  as  a  homogeneous  gas. 
We  must  remember,  however,  that  as  we  recede  from  the 
fire  the  infiltration  of  air,  if  not  prevented,  becomes  greater. 
In  careful  experiments,  the  method  to  be  described  of  frac- 
tionating a  large  volume  is  preferable. 

GAS    SAMPLER. 

In  principle  the  apparatus  consists  of  a  falling-water 
aspirator,  and  a  second  mercury  aspirator  drawing  a  small 
fraction  of  the  gases  from  the  current  of  the  first  in  a  con- 
stant regular  manner  and  keeping  it  in  a  mercury  gas-holder, 
A  (Fig.  28),  which  is  a  strong  glass  flask  of  3  litres  capacity, 
holding  about  40  kilograms  (88  Ibs.)  of  mercury.  The 
gas-holder  is  connected  by  the  tube  a  with  the  tube  c  for 
sampling  the  gas,  the  flask  A  and  its  accessories  acting  as 
a  Mariotte  flask.  It  is  closed  at  the  top  by  a  stopper 
hollowed  out  conically  below  and  having  holes  for  two 
tubes,  a  and  b.  This  hollowing  is  to  permit  filling  without 


GAS   SAMPLER. 


I29 


any  air-bubbles.  The  tubes  a  and  b  have  glass  stop-cocks, 
but  the  one  in  a  may  be  omitted.  The  manometric  tube  c 
shows  the  pressure.  Tube  d,  like  c,  passes  through  a  rubber 
stopper,  closing  the  horizontal  tubulature  of  the  gas-holder. 


FIG.  28. — GAS  SAMPLER. 


FIG.  29. — SAMPLER  TUBE. 


This  tube  can  be  rotated  in  the  stopper  to  the  position  shown, 
or  to  one  180°  from  such  position.  The  flask  is  graduated  on 
the  side  into  millimetres.  Tube  a  fits  the  hole  of  the  stopper 
tightly,  and  can  be  moved  up  or  down  as  desired  to  suit  the 
quantity  of  gas  in  the  flask.  All  joints  are  covered  with 
paraffin,  tube  a  being  greased  to  facilitate  movement. 

Fig.  29  shows  the  gas  sampling  tube.  It  consists  of  a 
platinum  cylinder,  rs,  10  millimetres  (0.4  inch)  diameter  and 
700  millimetres  (27.5  inches)  long,  having  a  longitudinal  slot 
of  several  centimetres  length.  The  end  r  is  closed  with  a 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

platinum  cap;  the  end  s  is  soldered  to  a  copper  tube,  sy,  pass- 
ing into  a  Liebig  condenser  having  two  tubes,  00',  for  the 
water.  In  most  cases  the  platinum  tube  may  be  replaced 
without  trouble  by  one  of  copper,  or  even  iron,  the  platinum 
being  necessary  only  when  the  gases  are  drawn  at  a  tempera- 
perature  high  enough  to  cause  oxidation  of  the  other  metals. 
With  iron  or  copper  a  portion  of  the  oxygen  is  removed  in 
the  passage  through  the  tube. 

The  tube  ry  is  open  atjy,  and  has  a  side  tube  //.  Aspira- 
tion is  carried  on  through  the  opening  in  the  platinum  tube. 
A  movable  rod,  ik,  carrying  a  platinum  scraper  is  attached 
to  one  end  of  the  tube,  and  moves  in  the  slot  to  clean  it,  as 
occasion  requires,  from  soot,  etc.  The  disk/)  serves  to  hold  the 
cement  used  in  fastening  it  to  the  stack  or  chimney,  and  pre- 
vents ingress  of  external  air.  The  rod  mn  passes  through  a 
caoutchouc  bearing  fastened  between  the  disks  /  and  q. 

Fig.  28  represents  a  front  view  of  the  apparatus.  Fig.  30 
represents  a  side  view  in  elevation.  The  tube  ry  is  intro- 
duced through  an  opening  made  for  the  purpose  in  the 
masonry,  the  pait  rs  being  exposed  inside.  The  end  y,  is 
connected  with  a  lead  pipe,  vt  by  a  rubber  tube ;  this  pipe  is 
soldered  to  another  one,  yz.  On  opening  the  cock  yt  water 
flows  from  a  reservoir  and  empties  at  z.  Suction  in  yrs 
should  amount  to  several  millimetres  of  mercury,  and  is  regu- 
lated by  the  cocks  y  and  x  controlling  the  water-flow,  and  also 
by  the  length  of  yz.  The  gas  drawn  in  by  yvx  may  be  meas- 
ured by  collecting  it  at  z,  and  should  amount  to  4  or  5  litres 
(25  to  30  cubic  inches)  per  minute. 

The  gas-holder  is  supported  by  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  with 
upturned  edges  forming  a  shelf.  Any  mercury  spattered 
over  or  spilled  is  thus  easily  collected.  The  mercury  tank  is 
supported  from  the  wall  of  the  chimney  in  such  position  as  to 
facilitate  refilling  the  flask  through  a  siphon.  The  tubes  dd' 
serve  to  feed  the  condenser. 

While  the  current  is  passing  through  yr  a  small  quantity 


GAS   SAMPLER. 


is  drawn  out  by  the  tube  h,  and  this  should  be  so  regulated 
by  the  cock  d  that  only  from  ^-5-0  to  3"uir  '1S  collected. 

Whenever    the    level   of    the   mercury  lowers,  it  shows  a 


FIG.  30. — GAS  SAMPLER. 

clogging  in  the  slot,  and  it  should  be  cleaned  by  moving  the 
rod.  This  always  indicates  when  cleaning  is  necessary,  and 
it  sometimes  keeps  clean  for  hours. 

When  a  sufficient  sample  has  been  obtained  turn  up  the 
tube  d,  and  then  the  gas-holder  can  be  carried  away. 

The  method  recommended  by  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers  is  to  have  a  "box  or  block  of  gal- 
vanized sheet  iron  equal  in  thickness  to  one  course  of  brick," 
and  secure  in  it  a  series  of  J-inch  gas-pipes,  all  alike  at  the 
ends  and  of  equal  lengths,  in  such  manner  that  the  open  ends 
may  be  evenly  distributed  over  the  area  of  the  flue  A  (Fig. 
32),  and  their  other  open  ends  enclosed  in  the  receiver  B. 


132 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


A  simpler  arrangement  than  Scheurer-Kestner's  is  the 
one  recommended  by  Col.  David  P.  Jones  in  his  paper 
before  the  American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers,  vol.  X. 
page  135. 

The  sampler  is  a  large,  wide-necked  glass  bottle  (Fig.  30^7), 
closed  with  a  cork  having  two  glass  tubes, 
one  just  entering  the  bottle,  the  other 
reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom.  One  of 
these  tubes  is  connected  with  an  iron  pipe 
leading  to  the  flue  and  extending  well  into 
it.  The  other  tube  is  connected  with  any 
kind  of  an  aspirator  which  works  steadily. 
A  water-jet  exhaust,  an  engine-driven  ex- 
haust, or  any  similar  kind  will  do.  If  not 
convenient  to  use  an  exhaust,  the  bottle 
may  be  filled  with  mercury  and  by  mak- 
ing a  siphon  with  the  rubber  tube  attached 
to  the  long  glass  tube,  the  bottle  can  be 
gradually  emptied  of  mercury  and  the 
gases  to  be  sampled  drawn  in.  If  mer- 
cury cannot  be  had,  water  will  do,  but 
the  result  will  not  be  as  reliable  since  the 
water  may  dissolve  some  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  gas. 

The     size     of     the    bottle    may    be 

adapted  to  the  quantity  of  gas  aspirated,  and  by  means 
of  proper  stop-  or  pinch-cocks  adjusted  to  work  slow 
or  fast. 

Used  in  conjunction  with  the  arrangement  figured  on  page 
134  this  apparatus  forms  a  very  simple  and  satisfactory 
sampler.  One  great  advantage  in  favor  of  this  arrangement 
is  the  fact  that  it  is  easily  made,  all  the  portions  of  it  being: 
found  in  nearly  every  shop. 


FIG.  soa. — JONES  GAS 
SAMPLER. 


GAS  SAMPLED. 


13$ 


B 


FIG.  31. — OIL  ASPIRATOR. 


If  the  flue-gases  be  drawn  off  from  the  receiver  B  by 
four  tubes,  CC,  into  a  mixing-box, 
D,  beneath,  a  good  mixture  can  be 
obtained.  Two  such  samplers,  one 
above  the  other,  a  foot  apart,  in  the 
same  flue  will  furnish  samples  of 
gases  which  show  the  same  compo- 
sition by  analysis. 

The  oil  gas  holder  (Fig.  31)  con- 
sists of  a  bottle  tubulated  at  the 
bottom  and  connected  with  the  sup- 
ply of  gas  at  the  upper  opening.  It 
may  contain  some  10  litres  (600 
cubic  inches),  and  is  filled  with 
water  having  on  it  a  layer  of  10 
centimetres  (4  inches)  of  oil.  The 
water  running  out  from  the  tubu- 
lature  at  the  bottom  draws  the  gas 
in  at  the  top.  The  stopper  at  the  top  has  two  openings, 
through  one  of  which  passes  a  funnel-tube,  through  which 
water  may  be  poured  to  expel  the  gas  when  portions  of  it 
are  needed.  The  gas  then  passes  out  by  the  same  tube 
through  which  it  was  drawn  into  the  bottle. 

With  all  kinds  of  aspirators  or  gas  holders  especial  care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  entrance  of  air  into  the  flue  after 
leaving  the  fire,  since  the  correct  analysis  will  show  not  only 
the  quantity  of  unburnt  gases,  but  also  the  excess  of  air,  and 
any  mixture  of  outside  air  will  vitiate  the  result  and  cause- 
faulty  deductions  as  to  the  working  of  the  fire ;  and  conse- 
quently the  waste  calories. 

To  prevent  this,  all  joints  in  the  masonry  must  be  exam- 
ined and  repaired  if  necessary.  In  case  of  dampers,  which 
must  be  used,  the  bearings  can  be  made  in  stuffing-boxes,  as 
recommended  by  Burnet.  Generally,  the  gas  can  be  sampled 
before  it  arrives  at  a  damper,  as  the  course  of  the  boiler-flue 


'34 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


is  usually  sufficient  to  cause  a  thorough  mixing  of  the  gases. 
In  case  there  are  several  dampers,  the  first  one  may  be  dis- 
pensed with  for  the  time  being. 

When  the  gases  are  taken  quite  near  the  fire,  they  must  be 
drawn  very  slowly  in  order  to  gradually  cool  them  down  and 


FIG.  32. 

avoid  dissociation.  In  this  case  a  stoneware  tube  may  be 
used  for  suction.  If  this  precaution  is  neglected  the  gases 
collected  may  be  entirely  different  from  those  passing  off  at 
the  chimney.  Metal  tubes  are  inadmissible,  since  they 
abstract  oxygen,  and  hence  cause  a  change  in  composition. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    GASES. 

The  collected  gases  contain  nitrogen,  oxygen,  carbonic 
acid,  carbonic  oxide,  hydrocarbons,  and  occasionally  free 
hydrogen.  To  determine  all  these  a  eudiometric  method 


GAS  SAMPLER. 


35 


must  be  used ;  but  usually  only  the  oxygen,  carbonic  oxide, 
and  carbonic  acid  are  required.  In  normal  combustion  with 
sufficient  air  the  quantity  of  hydrocarbons  is  very  trifling,  and 
need  not  be  considered.  This  occurs  usually  with  a  supply 
of  1 5  cubic  metres  of  air  per  kilogram  (240  cubic  feet  per 
pound)  of  coal,  and  should  produce  a  waste  gas  containing  10 
to  14  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid,  in  which  case  the  unburnt 
hydrocarbons  amount  to  less  than  I  per  cent. 

The  Orsat  apparatus  or  its  modifications  may  be  used  to 
determine  the  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  and  carbonic  oxide.  By 
using  Winckler's  modification  the  hydrocarbons  may  be  deter- 
mined. For  exact  analyses  of  the  gases  the  Hempel  apparatus 
may  be  used.  For  general  work,  however,  the  Orsat  appa- 
ratus or  the  Orsat-Muencke  is  the  best  and  most  easily 
transported  and  handled.  Directions  for  using  this  apparatus 
need  not  be  given  here,  as  they  can  be  found  in  all  works  on 
gas  analysis,  or  can  be  had  of  the  dealers. 

The  following  table  gives  analyses  made  by  Scheurer- 
Kestner  of  waste  gases  from  Ronchamp  coal.  The  gases  for 
examination  were  collected  by  means  of  the  apparatus  described 
above  (pp.  128  et  seq.)  and  shows  the  average  for  a  whole 
day's  run. 


Percentage  Composition  of  the  Gases. 

QJ    O 

o 

bo 

a 

8 

"H 

u 

Hydrocarbons. 

a  o 

Hr* 

• 

ja 

JG 
U 

V 

o 

<; 

6 

HM 

«M 

i 

M 

W 

c 
u 

.a 

c 

c 

u 

c 

d 

c 

V 

M 

"Si 

°_. 

0 

c 

V 

c 

1 

1 

^ 

| 

| 

2 

-do 

.c  rt 
•5^3 

3  ba 

« 

* 

rt 
U 

0 

• 

U 

rt 

U 

ffi 

0 

U 

£" 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

6.60 

80.38 

14.87 

I.4I 

0.84 

1.  15 

1.35 

8.19 

15-4 

5' 

10.47 

80.60 

14.16 

2.18 

0.97 

0.98 

I.  II 

9.625 

30.8 

8' 

I3-32 

80.66 

14.63 

2.80 

0.86 

0.49 

0.56 

15-4 

4' 

17.61 

81.52 

13.34 

3-77 

0.86 

0.46 

0.91 

8.19 

15-4 

3' 

20.94 

80.23 

13.43 

4.42 

0.24 

0.32 

1.41 

8.19 

30.8 

10' 

26.18 

80.34 

12.89 

5-53 

0.24 

0.28 

0.96 

4.71 

15.4 

8' 

42.84 

79.76 

10.87 

8.99 

0.24 

0.19 

0.19 

18.94 

15.4 

2' 

53-78 

79-86 

8.23 

11-35 

0.24 

0.04 

0.52 

3-41 

13.2 

10' 

136 


CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 


The  following  table  gives  some  analyses  by  Bunte  of  gas 
samples  from  coal  burnt  in  his  experimental  apparatus  at 
Munich: 


Mm.  and 
Max. 
of  Air. 


CO, 


CO 


^ 


Coal  from  the  Ruhr 

Do.  

Do.  

Do.  

Do.  (grate  more  open). 
Do.  Do. 

Coal  from  Saarbruck:  Kcenig.. 
"  "  Tremosna:  Bohemia 
'*  "  Hausham:  Bavaria. 

-?«       "      Miesbach:   Bavaria. 

i 

n  \  Min. 

Bohemla 1  Max, 

the  Ruhr  :  General  j  Min. 

Erbstolln 1  Max. 

the  Ruhr  :  Gelsen-  j  Min. 

kirchen (  Max, 

Saarbruck  :  Saint-  j  Min. 

Ingbert ]  Max, 

Saarbruck  :  Mittel-  (  Min. 

bexbach (  Max. 

Saarbruck  :    Heinitz  j 
Saarbruck:  mixed  . . 

Min. 
Max. 

Bavaria  :       Peissen-  j  Min. 
berg |  Max, 

Lignite  from  Bohemia -| 

Coke  from  Saarbruck 


10.26 
16.45 
13.40 
n-45 

8.15 

6.12 
15-12 

7.07 
13.78 

7-94 
10.48 

5.7i 
11.46 

5  42 
17.48 

12. 2O 
16.45 

3  95 
10.46 

5-44 
10.73 

7.48 
13-30 

8-44 
14.62 

6.49 

IO.22 

8.21 

15.50 
8.48 

9.61 

7.00 

13.80 

7.60 

11.4 
8.07 
13.96 

7.85 

14.91 

6.36 

14.87 

8.01 


o.53 
1.94 
0.48 

1.22 
0.10 

0.89 
1.09 
0.18 

4.69 

0.03 
0.07 

0.14 

0.07 
0.03 

I. 21 

? 

1.94 

0.06 

O.  II 
O.I  2 

0.15 
0.07 
0.61 
0.19 

2  07 

0.07 

O.22 
O.O4 
0.74 
0.08 

0.16 

O.I  I 

0-33 
0.16 

o  15 

O.IO 

1.46 

0.07 
1.04 
0.16 
0.13 
0.03 


O.OI 

1.45 

0.30 
0.78 

O.OI 
O.IO 

1. 02 
o.oo 
o.  16 
0.09 
0.19 
0.08 
0.07 

O.O2 

0.06 
0.30 

1.45 

o.oo 

O.  II 
O.IO 

0.30 

O.IO 

0.33 

0.16 

I.OO 

0.06 

0.07 

0.02 

0.33 

0.07 
0.08 
0.05 
0.30 
0.09 
0.04 
0.09 

0.79 
0.13 

0.60 

0.23 

0.09 
o.oo 


10.00 

1.52 

6.52 

7.27 

II. 60 

14.21 
2.64 

12.57 

I.IO 

11.03 

9.28 
14.86 

8.66 
15.00 

3-13 

7.87 
1.52 

16.41 

8.58 

14-15 

7.36 

11.91 

4.13 

10.58 

2.07 

12.70 

8-57 

10.64 

1.67 

9.69 

9-47 
12.70 

4-36 
11-53 

7-45 
10.73 

2-93 

10.57 

2.92 

I3-I5 

4.16 

10.87 


79.20 
78.64 
79-30 
79.28 
80.14 
78.68 
80.13 
80.25 
80.27 
80.91 
79-9S 
79.21 
79-74 
79-53 
78.12 
•> 

78^64 
79.58 
80.74 
80.19 
81.46 
80.44 
81.63 
80.63 
80.24 
80.68 
80.92 
81.09 
81.66 
81.68 
80.68 
80.14 
81.21 
80.62 
81.22 
81.01 
80.86 
81.38 

80.53 
80.10 
80.75 
81.09 


The  data  in  the  above  table  show  that  when  air  to  the 
amount  of  15  cubic  metres  and  over  per  kilogram  (200  cubic 


CALCULATION   OF    THE    VOLUME   FROM  ANALYSIS.      I3/ 

feet  per  pound)  is  used,  corresponding  to  a  maximum  of  14 
per  cent  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  waste  gases,  the  loss  in  hydro- 
gen is  very  small.  With  12  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid  the 
hydrogen  loss  amounts  to  only  a  few  thousandths. 

CALCULATION    OF   THE   VOLUME    FROM    ANALYSIS. 

To  calculate  this  volume,  determine  the  weight  of  carbon 
in  a  unit  of  volume,  and  knowing  the  weight  of  carbon  fur- 
nished by  the  coal,  determine  the  volume  corresponding  to 
the  unit  of  weight.  The  unit  of  volume  for  the  gas  is  the 
cubic  metre,  and  the  unit  of  weight,  the  kilogram. 

Carbon  exists  in  the  waste  gases  as  carbonic  acid,  carbonic 
oxide,  and  hydrocarbons;  when  we  do  not  know  the  compo- 
sition of  the  hydrocarbons,  we  consider  the  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen as  free,  and  that  the  carbon  is  in  the  state  of  vapor. 

To  determine  the  weight  of  carbon  contained  in  these 
different  gases,  reduce  their  volumes  to  kilograms,  and  by 
means  of  their  molecular  (or  equivalent)  weights  and  that  of 
carbon  make  the  calculation. 

i  litre  of  CO2  at  o°  and  760  mm.  weighs  1.966  grams, 
i     "     "   CO   "    "      "      "       "          "        1.251       " 
I     i(     "   C  vapor  "       "          (<        1.072       " 

Molecular  weight  of  carbon , 12 

"   CO, 44 

"   CO 28 

The  weight  of  a  volume  v  of  carbonic  acid  is  v  X  1.966, 
and  as  44  of  carbonic  acid  contain  12  of  carbon,  then  the 
weight  of  carbon  would  be  as  44 :  12  or  as  11:3.  Then 

v  X  1.966  X  3 

-  =  0.5362;. 


138  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

The  weight  of  carbonic  oxide  of  volume  v  is  1.25 IT/,  and 
as  28  of  carbonic  oxide  contains  12  of  carbon,  the  ratio  be- 
comes 28:  12  =  7:3.  We  then  have 

v1  X  1.251  X  3 


7 


==  0.5362;'. 


The  weight  of  a  volume  of  carbon  vapor  is  v"  X   1.072. 

To  calculate  the  weight  of  carbon  in  a  cubic  metre  of  gasr 
multiply  the  added  volumes  of  COa  and  CO  by  the  coefficient 
0.536.  Multiply  the  volume  of  carbon  vapor  by  1.072,  and 
add  this  product  to  that  obtained  above.  The  sum  is  the 
weight  of  carbon  per  cubic  metre, 

C  =  o.536(z/  -j-  v')  -\-  I.OJ2V". 

If  the  gas  contains,  per  cubic  metre,  60  litres  of  carbonic 
acid,  10  of  carbonic  oxide,  and  I  of  carbon  vapor,  we  will 
have 

c  —  0.536(60  -f-  10)  -f-  1.072  X  i  —  38.592  grams  carbon. 

From  the  ratio  of  carbon  of  the  coal  consumed  and  that  in 
the  gas  the  volume  of  combustion  gases  is  deduced. 

To  calculate  this,  subtract  the  carbon  of  the  cinders  from 
that  of  the  original  coal.  If  the  coal  contains  81  per  cent 
carbon  and  leaves  6  percent  of  cinders  containing  10  percent 
of  carbon,  then  the  amount  of  carbon  burnt  will  be 

8 1  —  (o.  10  X  6.0)  =  8 1  —  0.6  =  80.4. 
We  then  have 

38.592  :  1000  =  804:  20.830  litres. 

A  kilogram  of  coal  produces,  then,  20.83   cubic  metres  of  gas 
at  o°  and  760  mm. 

The  general  formula  is 

rs C-c 

\.OJ2v"  ' 


CALCULATION  OF   THE    VOLUME   FROM  ANALYSTS.      139 

in  which 

V  =  volume  of  waste  gases  at  o°  and  760  mm.  in  cubic  metres; 

v  =        "        "   CO2  in  litres  per  cubic  metre  of  gases; 

„.'  __       n       ''CO''      ''      *  *       ''          ' '      "        ' ' 

2;"=        "        "   carbon  vapor  per  cubic  metre  of  gases; 

C  =  weight  of  carbon   in  grams,  contained  in    I   kilogram  of 

coal; 
c  =  weight  of  carbon  in  grams,  contained  in  cinders  from  I 

kilogram  of  coal. 

NOTE. — The  above  calculation  in  English  units  would  be  as  follows: 

Weight  of  i  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  acid o.  12274  lb. 

"         "   i     "         "     "          "         oxide 0.07811   " 

"  i     "         "     "  carbon  vapor 0.06693  " 

v  X  0.12274  X  3 

-  =  0.0335*. 


n 
v'  X  0.07811  X  3 


=  0.0335Z/ . 


7 

0.06693^'"  —  weight  of  carbon  in  vapor. 
C  =  o.0335(z/  4-  v')  4-  0.066937;". 

looo  cubic  feet  of  gases  having  60  cubic  feet  of  COa ,  10  cubic  feet  of  CO 
and  i  cubic  foot  of  C  vapor  would  give 

C  =  0.0335(60  4-  10)  4-  0.06693  X  i  =  2.412  Ibs.  carbon, 
i  pound  of  coal  has  80.4  per  cent  carbon;  then 

2.412  :  1000  =  0.804  :  333^  cubic  feet  of  gases  produced  from  i  Ib.  of  coal. 
The  general  formula  is 


0*0335(0  4-  v')  4-  0.06693^"' 
in  which 

V  —  volume  in  cubic  feet  of  gases  produced; 

v    =  of  CO2  in  cubic  feet  per  1000  cubic  feet; 

v'   =        "         "  CO    "  "  "       " 

v"  =  "  carbon  vapor  in  cubic  feet  per  1000  cubic  feet; 

C    =  weight  of  carbon  in  coal  in  thousandths  of  a  pound; 

f     =        "         "        "        "    cinders  per  pound  of  coal  in  thousandths. 


340  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

CALCULATION   OF    VOLUME    OF   AIR   SUPPLIED. 

The  volume  of  combustion-gases  just  determined  is  less 
than  that  of  the  air  supplied.  Oxygen  in  forming  carbonic 
acid  produces  a  volume  equal  to  itself;  hence  there  is  no 
change. 

C  +  O,     -     CO, 

2  Vols.  2  VOls. 

Oxygen  in  forming  carbonic  oxide  produces  twice  the 
volume. 

C  +  O     =     CO 

I   VOl.  2  VOls. 

Hence  there  is  an  increase  in  volume. 

Carbon  vapor  and  hydrogen  as  free  gases  or  as  hydro- 
carbons increase  the  volume  but  slightly.  In  forming  sul- 
phurous acid  with  sulphur  there  is  no  change  of  volume. 

s  +  o,    =    so, 

2  VOls.  2   VOls. 

Another  slight  cause  of  increase  is  setting  free  the  nitrogen 
of  the  coal ;  but  this  is  inappreciable.  I  per  cent  of  nitrogen 
forms  only  o.  I  per  cent  of  the  entire  volume  of  gases  formed. 

It  might  be  said  that,  excepting  the  oxygen  changing  to 
water  and  disappearing  by  condensation,  all  the  modifications 
of  gaseous  volume  may  be  neglected,  the  increase  being  more 
than  compensated  by  the  loss  due  to  oxygen.  This  elimina- 
tion of  oxygen  must  be  allowed  for,  however. 

A  coal  containing  4  per  cent  of  hydrogen  requires  eight 
times  such  weight  to  form  water,  or  40  grams  of  hydrogen 
need  320  grams  of  oxygen.  I  litre  of  oxygen  weighs  1.430 
grams,  then  320  grams  measure  ^f^  =  223.7  litres  (7.9  cubic 
feet).  (Or  I  Ib.  of  such  coal  would  need  3.6  cubic  feet  of 
oxygen.) 

These  223  litres  must  be  added  to  the  volume  of  the 
waste  gases  produced  by  the  coal  to  obtain  the  original 


CALCULATION   OF   VOLUME   OF  AIR   SUPPLIED.         141 

volume  of  air  introduced.      A  coal  containing  5  per  cent  of 
hydrogen  would  use  279  litres. 

The  volume  of  oxygen  needed  for  various  percentages  of 
hydrogen  is  as  follows: 

Per  kilo  of  coal.  Per  Ib.  of  coal. 

\%  hydrogen  uses  of  oxygen          55.9  litres,       0.9  cubic  feet. 

2  "  "  "  112  "  1.8        "          " 

3  "  "  "  168         "  2.7     "       " 

4  "  "  "  223         "  3.6      "       " 

5  "            "  "  279         "          4.  5      (i       " 
Calling  H  the  per  cent  of  hydrogen,  the   formula  given 

above  becomes 

f  _  _  C-cf  ,  _ 
V/   "0  +  ^)0.563+  /  +  55*9  H' 

or 


— 
0.0335(2;  +z/r)  +  0.06693^"  ~ 


To  make  this  applicable  to  normal  air  saturated  with 
moisture  at  o°  C.  and  760  mm.  (32°  F.  and  29.922  inches) 
containing  0.4  per  cent  of  CO,,  we  must  divide  by  99.12, 
the  composition  of  air  being: 

Nitrogen , 78.35 

Oxygen 20. 77 

Water 0.84) 

r     u      -         -A  T     °'88 

Carbonic  acid , 0.04  ) 

100.00 

And  100  —  0.88  =  99.12.     The  formula  then  becomes 
_  C-c' 

(v+  00.567  +  1.0806?"    "  55'9  H' 
or 

C-  c' 


V  "  = 


0.06752 


14-  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

CALCULATION    OF    WEIGHT    OF    WASTE     GASES     FROM 
ANALYSIS.* 

Two  methods  of  calculating  from  the  analysis  by  volume 
of  the  dry  chimney  gases  the  number  of  pounds  of  dry  chim- 
ney gases  per  pound  of  carbon,  or  the  weight  of  air  supplied 
per  pound  of  carbon,  have  been  given  by  different  writers. 
These  may  be  expressed  in  the  shape  of  formulae  as  follows: 

(A)  Pounds  dry  gas  per  pound  C  = 


+  CO) 
(B)   Pounds  air  per  pound         C  =  5. 


Formula  A  may  be  derived  from  the  method  of  computa- 
tion given  in  Mr.  R.  S.  Hale's  paper  on  "  Flue  Gas  Anal- 
yses," Transactions  A.  S.  M.  £.,  vol.  xvm.  p.  901,  and 
formula  B  from  the  method  given  in  Peabody  and  Miller's 
Treatise  on  Steam-boilers.  Both  are  based  on  the  principle 
that  the  density,  relatively  to  hydrogen,  of  an  elementary  gas 
(O  and  N)  is  proportional  to  its  atomic  weight,  and  that  of  a 
compound  gas  (CO  and  CO2)  to  one  half  its  molecular  weight. 
Both  formulae  are  very  nearly  accurate  when  pure  carbon  is 
the  fuel  burned  ;  but  formula  B  is  inaccurate  when  the  fuel 
contains  hydrogen,  for  the  reason  that  that  portion  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air-supply  which  is  required  to  burn  the 
hydrogen  is  contained  in  the  chimney  gas  as  H2O,  and  does 
not  appear  in  the  analysis  of  the  dry  gas. 

The  following  calculations  of  a  supposed  case  of  combus- 
tion of  hydrogenous  fuel  illustrates  the  accuracy  of  formula  A 
and  the  inaccuracy  of  formula  B  :  Assume  that  the  coal  has 
the  following  analysis  :  C,  66.50;  H,  4.55;  O,  8.40;  N,  i.oo; 
water,  10.00;  ash  and  sulphur,  9.55;  total,  100.  Assume 

*  William  Kent  in  Report  of  Committee   on   Boiler-tests,  A.  S.  M.  E., 
1897. 


CALCULATION   OF   WEIGHT  OF    WASTE   GASES.  143 

also  that  one  tenth  of  the  C  is  burned  to  CO,  and  nine  tenths 
to  COa;  that  the  air  supply  is  20  per  cent  in  excess  of  that 
required  for  this  combustion ;  that  the  air  contains  one  per 
cent  by  weight  of  moisture ;  and  that  the  S  in  the  coal  may 
be  considered  as  part  of  the  ash.  We  then  have  the  follow- 
ing synthesis  of  results  of  the  combustion  of  100  pounds  of 
coal: 

O  from        N  =  Total  rr.  rr.          TT  r>. 

Air.          O  X  H          Air.  ~°»  H'° 

59.85  Ibs.  C  to  CO2  X  2f  159.60     534.31      693.91     219.45     

6.65    "     C  to  CO    X  ii  8.87       29.70        38.57     15.52     

3.50    "     H  to  H2O  X  8  28.00       93.74      121.74    31.50 


196.47     657.75      854.22     

1.05    "     H  to  H2O  ) 
8.40    "     H  toH20) 

jo.oo    "     Water  10.00 

i. oo   "     N  i. oo     

9.55    "     Ash  and  S  


100.00  

Excess  of  air  20  per  cent.  39-29     131.55       170.84 


1025.06 

Moisture  in  air  i  per  cent 10.25 


Total  wt.  of  gases,  1125.67  =     39.29     790.30  219.45  15.52     61.20 

Total  dry  gases,       1064.56 

O             N                                C0a  CO 

Total  dry  gases,  by  weight,  %      3.69       74.24  20.61        1.546 

Total  dry  gases,  by  volume,  %     3.508     80.656  14.252  1.584....* 

Total  gases  1125.76 -|- ash  and  S  9.55  =  1135.31  total  products. 

Total  air  1025.06  +  moisture  in  air  10.25  +  coal  100  =  1135.31. 

Dry  gas  per  pound  coal  10.6456;  per  pound  carbon  =  10.6456  -^  665  =  16.008. 

Dry  air  per  pound  coal  10.2506;  per  pound  carbon  =  10.2506  -f-  665  =  15.414. 

Computation  of  the  weight  of  dry  gas  and  of  air  per  pound  C: 

Formula  A  : 

Dry  gas  per  pound  C  =  ^252X11  +  3.508X8  +  82.240X7 

3(14.252  +  1.584) 
Formula  B  : 

Air  per  pound  C  =  5-8  '('4-25*+ 3-5O8)  +  1.584  =  ds 

I4.252+I.584 

The  error  in  the  last  result  is  15.414  —  13.589  =  1.825  pounds. 


144  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

Prof.  Jacobus  recommends  the  use  of  the  formula 

;N 
Pounds  of  air  per  pound  C  =    /CQ     i    CO)  "*"  °'77  ' 

and  in  the  case  given  above,  where  the  actual  quantity  used 
was  15.414  per  cent,  his  calculated  one  is  15.434  per  cent, — 
practically  the  same,  and  as  near  as  errors  of  analysis  would 
allow  a  calculated  result. 


VOLUME    OF   WASTE    GASES. 

The  fan-wheel  anemometer  is  an  instrument  to  measure 
the  force  or  rapidity  of  a  current  of  gas.  It  consists  of  a 
fan-wheel  rotated  by  the  moving  gas,  and  which  transmits 
such  motion  to  an  index  showing  the  number  of  revolutions. 
Burnat  used  this  apparatus  to  measure  the  quantity  of  air 
passing  in  under  the  grate  of  steam-boilers. 

The  coefficient  to  be  used  in  calculating  the  flow  is  differ- 
ent for  each  machine,  and  must  be  determined  by  actual 
experiment.  Burnat's  formula, 

v  =  0.120  +  0.130/2, 

means  that  the  velocity  is  found  by  multiplying  the  number 
of  revolutions  per  second  by  0.130  and  adding  0.120  to  the 
product. 

To  obtain  satisfactory  results  with  the  anemometer,  it 
must  be  placed  in  the  axis  of  a  perfect  cylinder  at  the  depth 
of  a  metre,  as  the  indications  vary  with  the  position  in  the 
flue.  The  formula  needs  correction  for  temperature,  but  the 
correction  of  the  apparatus  much  exceeds  this.  Burnat  com- 
pared his  results  with  those  obtained  from  a  formula  depend- 
ing on  the  depression  if  under  the  grate  (see  page  147),  and 
found  differences  of  not  more  than  5  per  cent. 


FLETCHER'S  ANEMOMETER. 


FLETCHER'S  ANEMOMETER. 

Fletcher's  anemometer  (Fig.  35)  is  used  in  England  to 
ascertain  the  speed  of  flow  in  chimneys  and  flues.  In  its 
simplified  form  it  is  quite  serviceable.  It  is  based  on  the 
movement  of  a  column  of  ether  in  a  U-tube. 

The  ends  of  the  glass  tubes  a,  b  are  placed  in  the  flue  a 
little  less  than  one  sixth  of  its  diameter.  The  straight  end  a 


FIG.  33. — FLETCHER'S  ANEMOMETER. 

should  be  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  current,  the  end  b 
being  at  right  angles  to  this.  Hunter  proposed  bending 
both  ends  in  opposite  directions,  to  obviate  the  error  caused 
if  the  tubes  were  not  so  placed.  These  tubes  communicate 
with  the  ether  tube  cd.  The  draught  across  the  tubes  causes 
the  ether  to  rise  in  a  by  aspiration  and  to  fall  in  b  by  pres- 
sure. The  difference  of  level  is  read,  and  then  the  tubes  are 
turned  around  180°,  so  as  to  reverse  their  positions,  and  the 
difference  of  level  read  again.  The  sum  of  the  two  differ- 
ences is  called  the  anemometer  reading,  and  by  means  of 
tables  the  velocity  of  the  current  is  ascertained. 

The  same  trouble  is  common  to  all  anemometer  methods. 
The  flue   feeding    the  fire   receives   only   the   air   passing   in 


146" 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


under   the 


FIG.  34. 
SEGUR    GAUGE. 


grate.  Whatever  passes  in  by  the  doors  or 
through  cracks  escapes  accounting.  On  account 
of  this  it  is  certain  that  the  calculations  based  on 
anemometer  readings  are  lower  than  the  actual 
air  supply. 

SEGUR'S  DIFFERENTIAL  GAUGE. 
This  gauge  (Fig.  34)  consists  of  a  U-tubeof 
•J-inch  glass,  surmounted  by  two  chambers  of  2\ 
inches  diameter.  Two  non-miscible  liquids  of 
different  colors,  usually  alcohol  and  paraffin  oil, 
are  put  into  the  two  arms,  one  occupying  the 
portion  ABy  the  other  the  portion  BCD.  The 
movement  of  the  line  of  demarcation  is  pro- 
portional to  the  difference  in  area  of  the  chambers 
and  the  tube  adjoining.  A  movement  of  2 
inches  in  the  column  represents  J-inch  difference 


pressure  or  draft. 


HIRN'S  METHOD. 

The  apparatus  used  by  Burnat  as  a  check  on  his  own 
calculations  was  devised  by  Hirn,  and  is  based  on  the  formula 
of  the  rate  of  flow  of  compressed  gases  from  a  reservoir, 
friction  being  neglected.  The  coefficient  of  reduction  used 
is  0.9,  the  one  given  by  Dubuisson  in  his  treatise  on  hydraulics. 

The  main  difficulty  consists  in  measuring  the  difference  of 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  ash  pit  and  that  outside, 
for  the  depression  in  the  flues  in  some  cases  does  not  exceed 
a  few  millimetres  of  water.  Hirn's  apparatus  removes  this 
difficulty. 

Burnat  describes  it  as  follows : 

When  making  a  test  the  doors  of  the  ash  pit  are  removed 
and  replaced  by  a  piece  of  sheet  iron,  A  (Fig.  37),  which  com- 
pletely shuts  out  all  access  of  air  except  through  the  opening 
in  the  middle,  to  which  is  fitted  the  pipe  CD,  13.8  inches 


HIR.V '  S   ME  THO  D . 


diameter  and  59  inches  long.  A  tube  leads  from  the  front 
to  the  apparatus  E,  devised  by  Hirn,  placed  on  a  table  or 
against  the  boiler-wall.  This  apparatus  consists  of  a  little 
gas  holder  whose  upper  surface  is  just  one  decimeter  (3.9 


FIG.  35. 

inches)  on  a  side.  Inside  this  and  above  the  water  level  the 
tube  A  opens.  The  bell  d'ips  into  a  vessel  of  water  and  is 
suspended  from  a  balance  arm. 

The  balance  being  in  equilibrium  when  the  atmospheric 
pressure  acts  on  both  sides  of  the  bell,  if  the  interior  is  con- 
nected with  the  ash-pit  the  weight  needed  to  restore  equili- 
brium will  give  a  measure  of  the  difference  in  pressure.  The 
weight  of  half  a  gram  (7.7  grains)  represents  one-twentieth 
millimetre  (0.002  inch)  of  water. 

The  formula  adopted  by  Hirn  is 


=  5X0 


•9\/: 


0.0013.5 


in  which 


V  =  volume    of  air    introduced  under  the    grate    in    cubic 

metres ; 
5  =  section  in  square  metre  of  pipe-opening  leading  air  to 

the  ash-pit ; 
0.9  =  coefficient  of  reduction; 


147* 


CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 


h  =  difference  of  pressure  expressed  in  height  of  water; 
B  =  barometric  pressure  in  the  room ; 
/  =  temperature  of  the  room ; 
g  ==  acceleration  of  gravity  =  9.8088  metres. 


KENT'S  GAUGE. 

The  accompanying  sketch  represents  a  very  sensitive  and 
accurate  draft-gauge  recently  constructed  by  Mr.  William 
Kent.  A  light  cylindrical  tin  can  A,  5  inches  diameter  and  6 


FIG.  350. — KENT'S  GAUGE. 

inches  high,  is  inverted  and  suspended  inside  of  a  can  B,  6 
inches  diameter,  6  inches  high,  by  means  of  a  long  helical 
spring.  A  J-inch  tube  is  placed  inside  of  the  larger  can,  with 


KENT'S   GAUGE. 

one  end  just  below  the  level  of  the  upper  edge,  while  the 
other  end  passes  through  a  hole  cut  in  the  side  of  the  can, 
close  to  the  bottom.  The  can  is  filled  with  water  to  within 
about  half  an  inch  of  the  top,  and  the  inner  can  is  suspended 
by  the  spring  so  that  its  lower  edge  dips  into  the  water. 

The  small  tube  being  open  at  both  ends,  the  air  enclosed 
in  the  can  A  is  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and  the  spring  is  ex- 
tended by  the  weight  of  the  can.  The  end  of  the  tube  which 
projects  from  the  bottom  of  the  can  being  now  connected  by 
means  of  a  rubber  tube  with  a  tube  leading  into  the  flue,  or 
other  chamber,  whose  draft  or  suction  is  to  be  measured,, 
air  is  drawn  out  of  the  can  A  until  the  pressure  of  the  remain- 
ing air  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  flue.  The  external  atmos- 
phere pressing  on  the  top  of  the  can  A  causes  it  to  sink  deeper 
in  the  water,  extending  the  spring  until  its  increased  tension 
just  balances  the  difference  of  the  opposing  vertical  pressures 
of  the  air  inside  and  outside  of  the  can.  The  product  of  this 
difference  in  pressure,  expressed  as  a  decimal  fraction  of  a 
pound  per  square  inch,  multiplied  by  the  internal  area  of  the 
can  in  square  inches,  equals  the  tension  of  the  spring  (above 
that  due  to  the  weight  of  the  can)  in  pounds  or  fraction  of  a 
pound.  The  extension  of  a  helical  spring  being  proportional 
to  the  force  applied,  the  distance  travelled  downward  by  the 
can  A  measures  the  force  of  suction,  that  is,  the  draft.  The 
movement  of  the  can  may  conveniently  be  measured  by  hav- 
ing a  celluloid  scale  graduated  to  fiftieths  of  an  iech  fastened 
to  the  side  of  the  can  A,  the  can  carrying  an  index. 

To  reduce  the  readings  of  the  scale  to  their  equivalents  in 
inches  of  water  column,  as  read  on  the  ordinary  U-tube 
gauge,  we  have  the  following  formulae : 

Let 

P  —  force  in  pounds  required  to  stretch  the  string  I  inch  ; 

R  =  elongation  of  the  spring  in  inches; 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

A  =  area  of  the  inner  can  in  square  inches ; 

d=>  difference  in  pressure  or  force  of  the  draft  in  pounds 
per  square  inch ; 

D  =  difference  in  pressure  in  inches  of  water  =  27.71^. 
EP=Ad  = 

D  = 


0.0361/4/7 
£  =  F; 


The  last  equation  shows  that  for  a  constant  force  of  draft 
the  elongation  of  the  spring  of  the  movement  of  the  can  may 
be  increased  by  increasing  the  area  of  the  can  or  by  decreas- 
ing the  strength  of  the  spring. 

Applying  the  above  formulae,  the  movement  of  the  can 
corresponding  to  a  draft  of  I  inch  of  water  column,  the 
can  A  having  a  diameter  of  5  inches  =  19.63  inches  area, 
and  the  spring  of  such  a  strength  that  o.  I  pound  elongates 
It  I  inch.  Here  P  =  o.  I  ;  A  -  19.63;  D  =  I. 

0.0361  X  19-63 

E  =  — =  7-OQ  inches. 

o.  i 


That  is,  the  instrument  multiplies  the  readings  of  the  U 
tube  7.09  times.  The  precision  of  the  instrument  is,  how- 
ever, far  greater  than  this  figure  would  indicate ;  for  in  the 
U  tube  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  read  with  precision  the 
difference  in  height  of  the  two  menisci,  while  with  this  ap- 
paratus readings  in  the  scale  may  easily  be  made  to  •£$  inch, 


DASYMETER. 


which,  with  the  multiplication  of  7,  is  equivalent  to  ^j-  of  an 
inch  of  water  column.  The  instrument  may  also  be  cali- 
brated by  directly  comparing  its  readings  with  those  of  an 
ordinary  U-tube  gauge. 


VOLUME  BY  AUTOMATIC  APPARATUS. 
DASYMETER. 

Siegert  and  Durr  *  devised  an  apparatus  called  the 
Dasymeter,  which  has  been  introduced  in  several  large  works 
in  Europe,  where  it  gives  satisfaction. 

It  consists  of  a  balance  enclosed  in  a  cast-iron  box  with 
a  glass  side  (Fig.  36).  At  one  end  of  the  beam  is  a  very 


FIG.  36. — DASYMETER. 

light  glass  balloon  holding  2  to  3  litres,  sealed  by  fusion. 
The  other  end  carries  a  weight  balancing  the  balloon.  This 
weight  is  formed  of  a  U-tube,  //,  containing  mercury,  and  is 
open  at  one  end ;  the  other  end  is  expanded  into  a  bulb  con- 
taining air,  which  is  submitted  to  the  variations  of  pressure 
and  temperature  through  the  mercury.  If  the  pressure  of 
the  air  increases  or  diminishes,  the  mercury  rises  or  falls,  and 
increases  or  diminishes  the  weight  on  the  lever.  Suppose  an 

*  Oesterreichische  Zeitschrift  fur  B.-  und  H.-Wesen,  xvi.  p.  291. 


148  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

increase  of  pressure  and  a  lowering  of  temperature  which 
would  diminish  the  density  of  the  air  one  half.  A  corres- 
ponding quantity  of  mercury  passes  into  the  arm  of  the  tube, 
and  the  original  compensating  weight  is  diminished  by  that 
amount.  A  graduated  index  shows  the  variations  of  weight, 
and  hence  the  variations  of  density  in  the  gases.  An  inge- 
nious arrangement  allows  regulation  by  rotating  the  U-tube 
on  the  axis  pn.  The  tube  is  turned  slowly  around  till 
adjusted,  thus  changing  the  length  of  the  lever-arm. 

A  difference  of  I  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid  causes  a  differ- 
ence in  weight  of  20  milligrams.  One  litre  of  air  at  o°  and 
760  millimetres  weighs  1294  milligrams;  I  litre  of  carbonic 
acid  weighs  1967  milligrams;  the  difference  is  673  milligrams. 
If  the  gas  contains  I  per  cent  of  COa,  each  litre  increases  6.73 
milligrams  in  weight ;  and  as  the  balloon  contains  3  litres,  it 
supports  an  external  pressure  of  more  than  3  X  6.73  —  20.19 
milligrams  (0.311  grains). 

To  prevent  action  of  sulphurous  acid  the  bearings  are 
made  of  sapphire,  onyx,  bloodstone,  etc.,  and  metallic  parts  of 
phosphor-bronze. 

To  set  up  the  dasymeter,  connect  pipe  c  with  the  boiler- 
flue  before  the  damper;  the  tube  pleads  to  the  chimney.  By 
this  means  a  current  of  gas  passes  through  the  box,  and  shows 
at  any  time  the  percentage  of  carbonic  acid.  Siegert  gives 
the  following  results  obtained  with  it,  and  the  corresponding 
results  by  analysis : 

j  Dasymeter,   13.0,   13.0,   12.0,  6.25,  2.2,  16.3,  7.5,  12.5 
3  (  Analysis,       13.0,  12.7,  12.2,  6.00,  2.0,  16.0,  8.0,  13.0 

ECONOMETER. 

H.  Arndt  has  invented  what  he  calls  the  "  Econometer  " 
(Fig.  37),  which  is  on  a  similar  principle.*  It  consists  of  a 
tight  cast-iron  shell,  NN,  containing  a  gas-balance.  A  pipe, 

*  Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  Deutscher  Ingenieure,  xxxvu.  p.  801. 


ECONOMETER. 


149 


?/,  0.4  inch  in  diameter  leads  to  the  inside  of  the  flue  before  the 
damper;  a  second  pipe,  v" ,  communicates  with  the  interior  of 
the  same  flue  beyond  the  damper.  In  the  interior,  the  tube  i' 
is  connected  to  the  upright  pipe/,  which  leads  the  gas  to  bell 
e' ,  and  the  tube  i"  to  the  tubulure  g.  i'  and  i"  are  of  rubber. 


FIG.  37.— ECONOMETER. 

The  balance  is  very  sensitive,  the  beam  carrying  at  one 
end  the  gas-holder  e' ,  open  below  and  containing  about  30 
cubic  inches,  and  at  the  other  end  a  second  holder  of  similar 
size  and  weight  as  the  first.  Attached  to  the  bottom  of  this 
one  is  a  pan  to  hold  the  balancing  weights. 

The  tube /conducts  the  gas  to  the  balloon  /,  which,  open 
below,  is  freely  movable  in  the  cylinder  g,  by  which  it  pro- 
duces suction  in  the  tube  i" . 

Carbonic  acid  being  heavier  than  common  air  (1.96  U> 
1.29)  as  well  as  the  other  associated  gases,  it  follows  that  the 
density  of  the  gases  passing  through  the  tubes  depends  on  the 
carbonic  acid  content.  The  scale  is  divided  so  that  each 
division  shows  one  per  cent  of  CO3  in  the  gases. 


150 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


GAS-COMPOSIMETER. 

The  gas-composimeter  of  Uehling  is  an  apparatus  for 
automatically  and  continuously  determining  the  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  contained  in  waste  gases. 

It  is  based  on  the  laws  governing  the  flow  of  gas  through 
small  apertures. 


FIG.  38. 

If  two  such  apertures,  A  and  B  (Fig.  38),  form  respectively 
the  inlet  and  outlet  openings  of  chamber  C,  and  a  uniform 
suction  is  maintained  in  the  chamber  Cf  by  the  aspirator  Dr 
the  action  will  be  as  follows : 

Gas  will  be  drawn  through  the  aperture  B  into  the  cham- 
ber Cf,  creating  suction  in  chamber  C,  which  in  turn  causes 
gas  to  flow  through  the  aperture  A.  The  velocity  with 
which  the  gas  enters  through  A  depends  on  the  suction  in  the 
chamber  C,  and  the  velocity  at  which  it  flows  out  through  B 
depends  upon  the  excess  of  the  suction  in  chamber  C'  over 
that  existing  in  chamber  C,  that  is,  the  effective  suction  in  C'. 
As  the  suction  in  C  increases,  the  effective  suction  must 
decrease,  and  hence  the  velocity  of  the  gas  entering  at  A 
increases,  while  the  velocity  of  the  gas  passing  out  through  B 
decreases,  until  the  same  quantity  of  gas  enters  at  A  as  passes 


TEMPERATURE    OF   THE    WASTE   GASES.  !$! 

out  at  B*  As  soon  as  this  occurs  no  further  change  of  suc- 
tion takes  place  in  the  chamber  C,  providing  the  gas  entering 
at  A  and  passing  out  at  B  be  maintained  at  the  same  tem- 
perature. 

If  from  the  constant  stream  of  gas,  while  flowing  through 
chamber  C,  one  of  its  constituents  is  continuously  removed  by 
absorption,  a  reduction  of  volume  will  take  place  in  chamber 
C  and  cause  an  increase  in  suction,  and  consequently  a  de- 
crease in  the  effective  suction  in  C' .  Hence  the  velocity  of 
the  gas  through  A  will  increase,  and  the  velocity  through  B 
will  decrease,  until  the  same  quantity  of  gas  enters  at  A  as 
is  absorbed  by  the  reagent,  plus  that  which  passes  out  at 
aperture  B. 

Thus  every  change  in  the  volume  of  the  constituents  we 
are  absorbing  from  trfe  gas  causes  a  corresponding  change  of 
suction  in  the  chamber  C. 

The  apparatus  is  connected  with  a  regulator,  a  manom- 
eter, and  automatic  recording  register. 

TEMPERATURE    OF   THE   WASTE   GASES. 

As  in  analyzing  coal,  cinders,  and  gases  we  must  have 
average  samples,  so  in  treating  of  waste  gases  we  need  average 
temperatures.  It  is  not  enough  to  take  the  temperature 
occasionally  with  the  thermometer;  it  varies  too  much  from 
time  to  time,  even  if  the  readings  are  taken  frequently.  We 
must  have  some  method  of  obtaining  the  average  temperature 
of  the  gas  current,  and  this  can  be  accomplished  by  means  of 
a  heat  reservoir  introduced  into  the  flue. 

For  this  purpose  one  was  devised  by  Scheurer-Kestner  of 
a  type  which  has  been  repeatedly  copied  and  modified.  It 
consists  of  an  iron  tube,  bb  (Fig.  39),  placed  in  the  flue  so 
that  the  upper  end,  covered  with  an  insulating  material,  is  let 
into  the  wall  to  about  one  half  its  thickness,  the  remainder 
hanging  free  in  the  flue.  This  tube  is  filled  with  paraffin, 


152 


CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 


and  in  this  is  inserted  the  thermometer.  The  large  mass  of 
the  paraffin  is  acted  on  by  the  mean  temperature,  but  is  unin- 
fluenced by  any  slight  momentary  changes  which  may  occur. 
A  self-registering  thermometer,  is  very  advantageous,  but 
readings  at  intervals  of  half  an  hour  are  sufficient  ordinarily. 
Of  course  the  opening  around  the  tube  should  be  packed  so 
as  to  prevent  all  possible  ingress  of  cold  external  air. 


FIG.  39. — FLUE  THERMOMETER. 

Occasionally  mercury  is  used  instead  of  paraffin.  This 
Tenders  the  average  of  the  heat  more  exactly,  perhaps,  but 
has  the  disadvantage  of  being  much  heavier  and  much  more 
-expensive.  There  are  also  many  difficulties  in  handling  it 
which  do  not  obtain  with  paraffin.  The  paraffin  should  be 
well  refined,  and  have  a  high  melting-point. 


THE    PNEUMATIC    PYROMETER. 

Uehling's  pneumatic  pyrometer  is  based  on  a  principle 
analogous  to  that  of  the  gas-composimeter,  and  is  now  in  use 
in  many  places,  automatically  measuring  the  temperatures  of 
chimneys  and  furnaces  for  all  temperatures  up  to  3000°  F., 
and  registering  the  same  on  cards.  The  apparatus  has  been 
tested  at  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  and  the 
indications  pronounced  reliable.  It  cannot  be  safely  used 


THE   PNEUMATIC  PYROMETER.  153 

continuously  for  temperatures  above  2500°,  but  at  that  tem- 
perature and  lower  it  works  well  and  satisfactorily  for  months 
without  requiring  any  readjustment.  The  automatic  register 
is  very  sensitive,  and  can  be  easily  adjusted  for  a  new  range  of 
temperatures  at  any  time. 

An  explanation  of  the  principle  of  its  working  is  given  in 
the  inventor's  own  words: 

* '  The  Pneumatic  Pyrometer  is  based  on  the  laws  govern- 
ing the  flow  of  air  through  small  apertures. 

"  If  two  such  apertures  A  and  B  (Fig.  38)  respectively 
form  the  inlet  and  outlet  openings  of  a  chamber  C,  and  a  uni- 
form suction  is  created  in  the  chamber  C'  by  the  aspirator  Dt 
the  action  will  be  as  follows : 

"Air  will  be  drawn  through  the  aperture  B  into  the 
chamber  Cf,  creating  suction  in  chamber  C,  which  in  turn 
-causes  air  from  the  atmosphere  to  flow  in  through  the  aper- 
ture A.  The  velocity  with  which  the  air  enters  through  A 
-depends  on  the  suction  in  the  chamber  C,  and  the  velocity 
at  which  it  flows  out  through  B  depends  upon  the  excess  of 
suction  in  C'  over  that  existing  in  the  chamber  C,  that  is,  the 
effective  suction  in  C' .  As  the  suction  in  C  increases,  the 
effective  suction  must  decrease,  and  hence  the  velocity  at 
which  air  flows  in  through  the  aperture  A  increases,  and  the 
velocity  at  which  air  flows  out  through  the  aperture  B  de- 
creases, until  the  same  quantity  of  air  enters  at  A  as  passes 
out  at  B.  As  soon  as  this  occurs  no  further  change  of  suc- 
tion can  take  place  in  the  chamber  C. 

"Air  is  very  materially  expanded  by  heat.  Therefore 
the  higher  the  temperature  of  the  air  the  greater  the  volume, 
.and  the  smaller  will  be  the  quantity  of  air  drawn  through  a 
given  aperture  by  the  same  suction.  Now  if  the  air  as  it 
passes  through  the  aperture  A  is  heated,  but  again  cooled  to 
.a  lower  fixed  temperature  before  it  passes  through  the  aper- 
ture j5,  less  air  will  enter  through  the  aperture  A  than  is 
<irawn  out  through  the  aperture  B.  Hence  the  suction  in  C 


154  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

must  increase  and  the  effective  suction  in  C'  must  decrease,, 
and  in  consequence  the  velocity  of  the  air  through  A  will 
increase  and  the  velocity  of  the  air  through  B  will  decrease, 
until  the  same  quantity  of  air  again  flows  through  both  aper- 
tures. Thus  every  change  of  temperature  in  the  air  entering 
through  the  aperture  A  will  cause  a  corresponding  change  of 
suction  in  the  chamber  C.  If  two  manometer-tubes/  and  q, 
Fig.  38,  communicate  respectively  with  the  chambers  C  and 
C' ',  the  column  in  tube  q  will  indicate  the  constant  suction  in 
C'  and  the  column  in  tube/  will  indicate  the  suction  in  the 
chamber  C,  which  suction  is  a  true  measure  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  entering  through  the  aperture  A. 

DETERMINATION    OF   THE   CARBON    IN   SMOKE. 

SOOT  or  black  forms  from  quick  cooling  of  the  hydro- 
carbons, temporarily  dissociated  by  high  temperatures.  Fuels; 
having  no  hydrogen  as  hydrocarbons,  never  produce  smoke ; 
pure  charcoal,  coke,  or  graphite  never  smokes.  Soft  coal,  on 
the  contrary,  produces  more  as  the  air-supply  grows  less. 

Sainte-Claire  Deville  proved  that  a  compound  gas  when 
heated  sufficiently  separates  into  its  elements;  a  sudden  cool- 
ing now  will  give  a  simple  mixture  instead  of  the  original 
combination.  A  slow  cooling,  however,  reproduces  the 
original  gas.  Berthelot  proved,  on  the  other  hand,  that  new 
compounds  are  formed  on  heating  the  hydrocarbons  to  high 
temperatures,  a  part  of  the  carbon  being  deposited  as  soot. 
These  two  phenomena  undoubtedly  go  on  together  in  smoke 
production.* 

If  a  metal  tube  be  put  in  the  gas  current  over  a  grate  at 
a  short  distance  from  the  fire,  the  hottest  gases  will  be  col- 

*Bunte  gives  some  analyses  of  smoke-black: 

C  H 

i ....     97.2         2.8 

2 97-3         2.7 

3 98.5         1.5 


DETERMINATION   OF    THE    CARBON   IN   SMOKE.       155 

lected.  Pass  a  stream  of  cold  water  through  a  pipe  in  this 
gas-current  and  a  large  quantity  of  black  will  be  deposited. 
On  stopping  the  water  flow  and  inclining  the  tube  a  little 
the  carbon  disappears  gradually,  and  when  the  temperature 
of  the  tube  attains  that  of  the  gas,  no  black  will  be  deposited. 
Cool  it  again,  and  more  black  forms  immediately. 

Combustion  gases  meet  with  surfaces  relatively  cold  in 
the  boiler  sides  or  flues,  or  even  in  colder  currents  of  gas  or 
air  passing  in  through  the  grate.  This  produces  a  quick  cool- 
ing, and  consequent  formation  of  black. 

Experiments  made  at  Mulhouse  in  1859  by  Burnat 
showed  an  advantage  gained  in  steaming  by  producing  smoke, 
rather  than  introducing  too  great  excess  of  air.  The  experi- 
ments showed  that  the  loss  in  carbon  was  quite  small,  and 
these  results  have  been  confirmed  by  others  since.  E.  R. 
Tatlock  of  Glasgow  finds  60  per  cent  combustible  matter  in 
soot,  and  obtained  51.46  grains  per  cubic  foot  of  furnace 
gases. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  carbon  in  smoke,  Scheurer- 
Kestner  used  a  glass  organic  analysis  apparatus,  the  tube 
having  in  the  middle  loosely  packed  asbestos  for  "about  8 
inches,  which  was  kept  in  place  by  platinum  spirals.  One 
end  was  drawn  out  to  connect  with  the  absorption  apparatus, 
and  the  other  end  placed  in  the  flue.  After  igniting  and 
cooling  the  asbestos  the  small  end  is  connected  with  an 
aspirator  and  the  gas  drawn  slowly  through.  The  carbon  is 
all  stopped  by  the  asbestos,  which  becomes  black  for  a  short 
distance.  When  sufficiently  collected,  dry  the  tube  at  100° 
C.,  heat  to  redness,  and  pass  a  stream  of  oxygen  through  it, 
collecting  the  carbonic  acid  formed. 

As  an  example  Scheurer-Kestner  gives  the  following: 

Waste  gases,  reduced  to  o°  and  760  mm.      86  litres. 
Time  of  sampling I  hour. 


i56 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 


Composition  of  gas : 

.      CO, 8. 5  per  cent. 

Excess  of  air 53.4 

Nitrogen  and  residue 38.1 

COa  from  the  combustion 0.070  gram. 

Equivalent  to  carbon 0.019     " 

By  the  analysis  of  the  gases  and  that  of  the  coal  the 
quantity  of  air  consumed  was  calculated.  Knowing  the 
volume  of  air  used  for  the  coal,  its  composition,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  carbon  as  black  in  the  gases,  the  loss  due  to  such 
formation  was  calculated. 

Bunte  publishes  the  following  determinations  of  black: 


Kind  of  Coal. 

Waste  Gases  per 
Pound  of  Coal. 

( 
Black. 

Per  Cubic  Foot 
of  Gas. 

Per  Cent  Calories 
of  Heat  of 
Combustion. 

cubic  feet. 
135 
,143 
169 
184 
189 
205 

163 
217 

233 

278 

293 
129 

155 

grains. 
15-43 
7.41 
0.72 
6.74 
I.IQ 
2.03 
20.49 
6.79 

5-71 
648 
3-70 

1.08 
6.64 

I.I 
0.6 
0.07 

0.2 
O.I 
O.I 
2.1 

0.8 
0.7 
I.O 

06 

O.I 

0.8 

< 

< 

, 

t 

Hausha.ni  

4< 

,, 

., 

Miesbach   

Under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  for  feeding  the 
air,  the  loss  due  to  formation  of  black  does  not  exceed  2  per 
cent,  even  with  smoky  coal.  Ronchamp  coal  gave  the  fol- 
lowing results : 

Feeding  240  cubic  feet  of  air  per  pound  of  coal  gave  a 
gas  containing  8.5  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid,  excess  of  air  53 
per  cent,  and  loss  of  carbon  as  black  0.485  per  cent. 


DETERMINATION  OF    THE    CARBON  IN  SMOKE.          157 

Feeding  112  cubic  feet  of  air  per  pound  of  coal  gave  a 
gas  containing  14.8  per  cent  carbonic  acid,  6.7  per  cent  excess 
of  air,  and  0.96  per  cent  of  black. 

Saarbruck  coal  supplied  with  155  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
pound  gave  a  gas  having  12.8  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid,  28.5 
per  cent  excess  of  air,  and  2.03  per  cent  of  black. 

These  show  that  in  addition  to  being  a  sign  of  diminution 
in  combustible  gases,  smoke  cannot  cause  a  notable  saving 
in  fuel  if  such  saving  is  accompanied  by  increased  waste 
gases.  The  sensible  heat  of  a  larger  volume  compensates 
easily  for  the  advantages  resulting  from  the  more  perfect 
combustion  of  the  carbon. 

Several  methods  have  been  devised  for  approximating  to 
the  actual  quantity  of  carbon  contained  in  smoke.  One  is 
based  on  the  amount  of  soot  deposited  on  a  given  surface 
placed  in  the  chimney.  The  soot  deposits  on  the  upper  sur- 
face away  from  the  direct  current.  After  being  exposed  for 
a  few  hours  the  deposit  is  brushed  off  and  weighed.  Another 
method  is  by  using  smoked  glasses  of  different  degrees  of 
opacity  and  ascertaining  what  depth  of  color  is  necessary  to 
make  the  smoke  invisible.  An  improvement  on  this  method 
is  now  being  worked  out  by  one  of  our  manufacturers  of 
optical  goods,  by  means  of  which  the  glasses  are  held  in  a 
tube  and  so  arranged  as  to  gradually  produce  the  effect,  and 
in  such  way  that  it  can  be  measured. 

Another  method  is  that  devised  by  Ringelmann,  by  means 
of  which  the  blackness  of  the  smoke  is  compared  with  a  set  of 
ruled  lines,  so  scaled  in  width  of  line  and  space  as  to  produce 
six  different  gradations  from  smokeless  through  gray  and 
gray-black  to  dead  black.  He  recommends  the  preparation 
of  cards  8  inches  square,  and  have  them  suspended  50  feet 
from  the  observer,  at  which  distance  the  individual  lines 
become  indistinct,  and  only  a  general  tint  is  observable.  The 
intensity  of  the  smoke  is  then  compared  with  the  cards  and  re- 
corded as  agreeing  with  card  No.  I,  2,  or  whatever  it  may  be. 


158 


CALORIFIC   POWER    OF  FUELS. 


The  cards  are  shown  in  Fig.  40,  reduced  in  size,  the  actual 
lines  and  spaces  being  as  follows: 


FlG.  40.  —  RlNGELMANN  SMOKE  SCALE. 

Card  o,  all  white. 

Card  I,  black  lines    I   mm.  thick,   10  mm.  apart   between 
centres,  leaving  spaces  9  mm.  square. 

Card  2,  lines  2.3  mm.  thick;  spaces  7.7  mm.  sq. 
Card  3,  lines  3.7  mm.  thick;  spaces  6.3  mm.  sq. 
Card  4,  lines  5.5  mm.  thick;  spaces  4.5  mm.  sq. 
Card  5,  all  black. 


DETERMIN4TION   OF   THE    CARBON  IN  SMOKE, 


In  1895  Cohen  and  Russell  made  some  experiments  to  de- 
termine the  extent  of  pollution  of  the  air  by  smoke  from 
house  fires  burning  coal.  The  coal  used  was  from  Yorkshire, 
Durham,  and  Wigan.  The  quantity  of  soot  formed  was  de- 
termined by  aspirating  through  a  brass  tube  -J  inch  diameter 
connected  with  a  glass  tube  of  same  diameter  and  having  a 
plug  of  cotton  wool  in  one  end.  This  plug  was  dried  over 
sulphuric  acid  and  the  weight  of  the  soot  obtained.  The  re- 
sults are  given  in  the  following  table. 


.    No. 

Volume  of 
Chimney- 
gases. 

Weight 
of  Soot. 

Per  cent 
of  Soot 
in  Gases. 

Per    cent 
of  Soot  to 
Carbon 
Burnt. 

Name  of  Coal. 

litres 

grams 

I 

218.0 

0.0155 

O.OO73 

6.9 

1 

2 

282.5 

0.0267 

0.0094 

IO.2 

I 

3 
4 

249-5 
231.0 

0.0174 

0.0228 

0.0070 
0.0099 

8.0 

5.8 

}-"Silkstone  Hards,"  Yorkshire. 

5 

164.5 

0.0292 

0.0177 

9-3 

6 

182.5 

O.O2I9 

0.0120 

6.0 

J 

7 
8 

175.0 

278.5 

0.0247 
0.0278 

O.OI4I 
O.OIOO 

7-7 
5-1 

!•  "  Haigh  Moor  Best,"  Yorkshire. 

9 

240.0 

0.0243 

O.OIOI 

5-6 

"  Harvey  Seam,"  Durham. 

10 

230.5 

0.0227 

0.0098 

4.8 

"  Hutton  Seam,"          " 

ii 

262.O 

0.0282 

0.0108 

7-i 

"  Best  Deep  Yard,"  Lancashire. 

12 

230.0 

O.O232 

O.OIOI 

5-i 

"  Best  Arley," 

2744.0 

0.2844 

0.0103 

6.5 

It  would  seem  that  more  reliable  data  could  have  been 
obtained  had  the  carbon  been  collected  on  an  asbestos  plug 
and  then  burnt,  the  carbonic  acid  being  collected.  As  origi- 
nally performed  the  result  of  the  test  cannot  be  called  carbon, 
as  it  manifestly  contained  considerable  ashes,  etc.,  which  had 
been  carried  up  the  chimney.  By  burning  off  the  soot  in  a 
combustion  tube,  the  actual  content  in  carbon  could  have 
been  obtained. 

A  colorimetric  method  has  been  devised  by  P.  Fritzsche 
which  is  carried  out  as  follows :  He  takes  a  glass  tube  6 
inches  long  and  f  inch  diameter,  in  which  he  places  a  loose 


1 5 8£  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

cellulose  plug  of  about  2  grams  weight.  This  tube  is  con- 
nected by  means  of  a  short  rubber  tube  to  another  tube  of 
the  same  diameter  long  enough  to  reach  into  the  flue  or 
chimney,  passing  through  a  hole  made  for  the  purpose  in  the 
wall.  The  other  end  of  the  short  tube  is  connected  with  an 
aspirator,  and  a  measured  quantity  of  smoke  is  drawn  through 
it  slowly. 

The  tubes  are  then  disconnected,  the  blackened  portion 
of  the  cellulose  transferred  to  a  wide-mouthed,  stoppered 
bottle  holding  300  cubic  centimetres.  It  is  then  agitated 
with  200  cc.  of  water  till  of  uniform  appearance.  A  portion 
of  this  mixture  is  then  put  into  a  round-bottomed  test-tube 
having  a  diameter  of  about  two  inches  and  the  color  com- 
pared with  a  scale  of  colors  previously  prepared. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

CALCULATION   OF   THE   HEAT   UNITS. 

HEAT   OF   THE   AQUEOUS   VAPOR. 

THE  quantity  of  heat  contained  in  a  kilogram  or  pound  of 
steam  at  any  temperature  is 

Q  =.  606.5  +  0.305^  calories, 
or  Q'  =  1091.7  +  0.305(2^  -  32)  B.  T.  U., 

allowing  the  specific  heat  of  water  to  be  constant.  The 
number  of  heat  units  is  considered  the  same  as  the  tem- 
perature. 

So  that,  allowing  the  average  temperature  of  aqueous 
vapor  to  be  150°  C.,  each  kilogram  at  o°  has  absorbed  a  quan- 
tity of  heat  equal  to 

606.5-1-0.305  X   150  =  652.25  calories 

or  one  pound  has  absorbed  1 174  B.  T.  U. 

There  is  a  correction  to  this,  since  we  do  not  wish  the 
units  existing  in  the  steam,  but  only  those  added  to  it  from 
the  fuel.  We  must  then  deduct  that  already  existing  in  the 
water  at  its  entrance  to  the  boiler.  If  the  feed-water  be  20° 
(68°  F.)  the  formula  becomes 

652.25  —  20  =  632.25  calories, 
or  1 174  —  (68  —  32)  =  1 138  B.  T.  U. 

159 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS 


HEAT   OF   WASTE   GASES. 

The  heat  carried  to  the  chimney  by  the  waste  gases  is 
from  several  sources: 

1.  Sensible  heat  shown  by  the  temperature. 

2.  Heat  of  vaporization  of  the  hygroscopic  water  and  the 
water  formed  from  the  hydrogen  of  the  coal. 

3.  Heat  retained  by  the  combustible  gases  or  their  heat  of 
combustion. 

4.  Heat  represented  by  soot  or  black  of  the  smoke. 

I.    SENSIBLE    HEAT    OF    THE   TEMPERATURE. 

The  calculation  of  the  water  equivalent  of  the  heat  carried 
to  the  chimney  as  sensible  heat  requires  the  volume,  tem- 
perature, composition,  and  specific  heat  of  the  constituents. 

The  specific  heats  of  the  usual  constituents  of  waste  gases 
are  shown  in  Table  VIII.  The  specific  heats  are  supposed  to 
be  under  constant  pressure,  so  as  to  avoid  useless  calculations. 
The  hydrocarbons  or  hydrogen  will  be  omitted  for  the  same 
reason.  Calling  v,  v'  ,  v"  ,  v'"  the  volumes  in  cubic  metres 
of  the  gases  nitrogen,  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  oxy- 
gen, we  find  their  respective  weights,  by  multiplying  these 
volumes  by  the  weight  per  cubic  metre, 

1.2562;         1.9667''          i.  2  5  IT/'          I.430T/" 
~~~~  ~'  CO  ~O~ 


Multiplying  these  by  the  specific  weights  we  obtain  the  value 
in  water, 

.  .        T' 

" 


C  —  1.2567;  X  0.244+  1.966^  X  0.217  +  i.  25  IT/'  X  0.245  + 
I.430T/"  X  0.217. 


The  equivalent  in  water  c  multiplied   by  the   temperature 
on  leaving  the  boiler  gives  calories, 

C  =  c  X  T. 


CALCULATION   OF   THE  HEAT    UNITS.  l6l 

A  correction  of  the  same  kind  as  that  applied  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  feed-water  must  be  applied.  We  do  not 
wish  the  total  calories,  only  those  taken  up  from  the  coal. 
From  the  observed  temperature  T  we  must  deduct  the 
original  temperature  /  before  entering  the  fire.  So  that 

C-cX(T-t). 

The  general  formula  then  becomes 
C  =  [(1.256^)0.244  +  (1.966^)0.217 


N  C02  CO 


O 
As  an  example,  suppose  the  following  composition : 

Nitrogen 81.25  )  _  j  Air  in  excess 23.04  (4.84  X  4.761) 

Oxygen 4.84  J        (  Nitrogen 63.  05  (81.25  —  4.84—  23.04) 

Carbonic  acid. .    13.08 13.08 

Carbonic  oxide,     o. 83 o.  83 

100.00  100.00 

and  that  the  temperature  (T  —  t)  is  130°.      Then 

Nitrogen 1.256  X  .8125  X  0.244  —  0.249 

Carbonic  acid 1.966  X  .1308  X  0.217  =  0.055 

Carbonic  oxide.  . .    1.25  I  X  .0083  X  0.245  —  0.002 
Oxygen I-43O  X  .0484  X  0.217  —  0.015 


i. oooo  0.321 

The  value  in  water  for  I  cubic  metre  is  0.321  kilogram, 
which  at  130°  give 

0.321  X  130  =  41.7  calories. 

If  the  volume  of  the  gases  was  8.938  cubic  metres  per 
kilogram  of  coal,  the  calories  carried  to  the  chimney  would  be 

8.938  X  41.7 


100 


=  372  calories.   (669.6  B.  T.  U.) 


I 62  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

The  same  result  can  be  reached  more  quickly  by  taking 
the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  to  the  volume  (Table  VIII). 

N 8125X0.306  —  0.249 

CO2 1308  X  0.426  =  0.055 

CO 0083  X  0.306  =  0.002 

0 0484  X  0,310  =  0.015 


i. oooo  0.321 

0.321  X  130  X  8.938  =  372  calories. 

This  may  be  still  further  simplified  in  practical  work  with 
the  combustion  under  normal  conditions.  Base  the  calcula- 
tion on  the  proportion  of  carbonic  acid,  using  0.306  as  coeffi- 
cient for  the  remaining  gases.  Then 

C  =  (0.426^  +  o.$o6R)(T—t) 

v  CO, 0.1308  X  0.426  —  0.055 

R  N,  CO,  and  0 0.8692X0.306  —  0.266 


0.321 

By  means  of  the  coefficients  in  Table  IX  we  can  still 
further  shorten  the  calculation.  By  this  table  we  get  directly 

0.321  X  130  X  8.938  =  372  calories. 

The  loss  of  heat  due  to  temperature  of  the  waste  gases 
varies  according  to  the  condition  of  the  boiler,  its  surface  for 
radiation,  the  grate  surface,  and  the  air  supply.  With  the 
most  advantageous  cases,  and  moderate  combustion,  the  gas 
temperature  at  the  exit  does  not  exceed  150°  (302°  F.),  and 
the  loss,  5  or  6  per  cent  of  the  total  heat  of  combustion. 
It  may  reach  10  per  cent,  and  in  some  cases  even  more. 

2.    HEAT   OF   THE    HYGROSCOPIC   AND    COMBUSTION    WATER. 

During  combustion,  coal  furnishes  a  quantity  of  aqueous 
vapor  from  its  hygroscopic  water  and  its  hydrogen;  the  latter 


CALCULATION   OF   THE   HEAT    UNITS.  163 

is  determined  by  multiplying  the  weight  of  hydrogen  by  9. 
This  is  added  to  the  hygroscopic  water,  and  the  formula 

(606.5  +  0-3050  —  ? 

applied ;  /  being  the  temperature  of  the  vapor  in  the  gases 
(equal  to  that  of  the  gases),  and  t'  being  that  of  the  external 
air.  Besides  this,  however,  we  must  consider  the  specific 
heat  of  the  aqueous  vapor,  0.475.  Each  kilogram  still 
absorbs  0.475  multiplied  by  the  number  of  degrees  of  tem- 
perature above  100°,  and  the  formula  becomes 

.4(606.5  +  0.305^  —  t'  +  o.475(/  -  ioo)], 

JT  being  the  quantity  of  water,  in  kilograms,  furnished  by  the 
coal. 

Suppose  a  coal  contains  1 5  grams  per  kilogram  of  hygro- 
scopic water  and  45  grams  of  hydrogen,  as  follows: 

Hygroscopic  water 15 

Carbon 735 

Hydrogen 45 

Nitrogen  and  oxygen 50 

Ash..  1 60 


1000 

Hydrogen  45  produces  9  X  45  =  4°5  grams,  to  which 
add  the  15  grams  of  hygroscopic  water,  405  +  15  =  420 
grams.  The  heat  necessary  to  vaporize  this,  increased  by 
that  corresponding  to  the  temperature  of  the  gases  passing  up 
the  chimney,  represents  the  heat  lost. 

If  the  flue  temperature  is  145°  =  £,  and  the  external  air 
17.5°  =  /',  we  have 

o.42o[(6o6.5  +  0.305  X  145)  -  i7-5+o.475(i45  - 

=  274.9(494.8  B  T.U.). 


164  CALORIfIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

If  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the  coal  is  7000  calories,  then 
the  loss  is 

274.0 

=  3.92  per  cent. 

7000 

The  loss  due  to  these  causes  in  an  average  coal  (4—5  per 
cent  hydrogen  and  I  to  2  per  cent  moisture)  is  usually  from  2 
to  4  per  cent. 

3.    CALORIES    OF    THE    COMBUSTIBLE    GASES. 

Carbonic  oxide  is  always  present  in  variable  quantities, 
often  hydrocarbons  and  sometimes  hydrogen.  This  refers  to 
ordinary  fuel  and  the  usual  methods  of  burning.  The  quan- 
tity of  unburnt  gases  depends  on  the  kind  of  fireplace  used 
and  the  system  of  charging.  Thick  charges  of  fuel  always 
increase  the  volume  of  unburnt  gases;  the  smallest  amount 
being  obtained  from  small,  equivalent  charges,  fed  frequently 
and  using  30  to  50  per  cent  more  air  than  the  theoretical 
quantity. 

To  determine  this  loss  we  may  commence  with  the  volume 
or  the  weight  corresponding  to  I  kilogram  of  coal  burnt. 
The  calculation  is  given  on  pages  137  and  138.  No  account 
need  be  made  of  the  temperature,  the  calculation  of  loss  due 
this  having  been  made  on  page  161  for  all  gases,  and  there- 
fore for  these  gases. 

The  calorific  coefficients  of  the  unburnt  gases,  referred  ta 
a  cubic  metre  at  o°  and  760  mm.  pressure,  are 

Heat  of  Combustion. 
Weight  per  cub.  m. 


in  Kilograms.  Per  Kilo.  Per  Cubic  Metre. 

Hydrogen 0.089  345°°                3091 

Carbonic  oxide 1.251  2435                 3°43 

Methane  (CH4) 0.715  13343               10038 

Carbon  vapor J-O73  11328               12143 


CALCULATION   OF   THE   HEAT    UNITS.  1 6$ 

The  weight  and  heat  of  combustion  of  carbon  vapor  are 
given,  as  most  of  the  time  we  do  not  know  the  molecular 
condensation  of  the  hydrocarbons;  usually  the  ultimate  com- 
position is  all  that  is  known.  Hence  the  hydrogen  and  car- 
bon must  be  given  their  heat  values  as  though  free.  Fortu- 
nately they  occur  in  only  small  percentages,  and  the  error 
introduced  by  so  doing  is  small. 

Suppose  a  gas  to  analyze 

Carbonic  oxide   i.o 

Carbonic  acid 13.0 

Methane I  .o 

Oxygen 6.0 

Nitrogen * 79.0 

100.0 

i 

Assuming  that  the  air  has  been  fed  at  the  rate  of  10  cubic 
metres  per  kilogram  (160.5  cubic  feet  per  pound),  and  that 
the  coal  has  a  heat  value  of  8000  calories  (14400  B.  T.  U.), 
we  will  have,  for  10  cubic  metres, 

Carbonic  oxide o.  I  cubic  metres. 

Carbonic  acid 1.3      "  " 

Methane o.  i      " 

Oxygen... 0.6     "  " 

Nitrogen 7.9     " 

10.0 
Then 

CH4 ,  o.i  cub.  m.  @  0.715  =  0.0715  kilogram; 
CO,     o.i     "      "    @  1.251  =  0.1251 

and  0.0715  X  13343  =    933-7  calories; 

0.1251  X     2435  —     305.0 

Total 1238.7 


3 66  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

The  loss,  then,  is  1238.7  in  8000,  or  15.48  per  cent. 

If  instead  of  knowing  the  proportion  of  the  hydrocarbons 
we  know  only  that  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  the  heat  values 
calculate  separately.  Then,  instead  of  methane  o.  I,  there 
would  be  carbon  0.05,  and  hydrogen  0.2.  Then  the  cal- 
culation would  be 

0.2  X  0.089  =  0.0178 ;  0.0178x34500=  614.1 
0.05X1.073=0.0536;  0.0536  X  8137=  436.1 
o.i  X  1.251  =0.1251;  0.1251  X  2435  =  305.0 


1355.2  calories 

The  difference,  1355.2  —  1238.7  =  116.5  calories,  or  0.9 
per  cent  of  the  calories  lost,  or  15.48  X  .009  =  0.138  per  cent 
of  the  total  calories  of  the  coal,  which  is  small  compared  with 
other  sources  of  error. 

By  employing  Table  VII  we  may  dispense  with  reducing 
the  volumes  to  weights,  thus : 

Hydrogen o.2m3  X  3091  =    618 

Carbon  vapor 0.05     X  8722  =    436 

Carbonic  oxide o.  I       X  3043  =     304 


1358 

The  preceding  is  an  exaggerated  case;  as  usually,  with 
ordinary  working,  the  loss  is  from  2  to  7  per  cent,  rarely 
exceeding  the  latter.  Either  method  of  calculation  may  be 
used,  then,  without  risk  of  causing  an  error  of  importance. 

4.    CALORIES    DUE    TO    THE    SOOT. 

The  soot  in  smoke  consists  of  carbon  with  a  trace  of 
hydrogen.  It  can  be  calculated  as  all  carbon  without  appre- 
ciable error  and  with  the  coefficient  8137.  Knowing  the 
volume  of  gases  produced  by  I  kilogram  and  its  content  in 
black  (page  154),  calculate  the  number  of  calories.  Under 


CALCULATION  OF   THE   HEAT    UNITS. 


167 


the  most  favorable  conditions  for  smoke  production  the  loss 
does  not  exceed  I  per  cent,  and  is  generally  less  than  one 
half  that  amount. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF   CALORIES-LOSS. 

The  difference  between  heat  units  accounted  for  and 
those  possible  is  considered  as  resulting  from  radiation  by 
surfaces  not  available  for  producing  steam.  The  following  is 
taken  from  Scheurer- Kestner's  results  with  a  three -tube 
steam  boiler  followed  by  a  reheater.  The  first  column  gives 
results  obtained  with  Ronchamp  coal  in  1868,  the  second 
results  with  Nixon's  Navigation  Co.'s  coal  in  1881. 

Ronchamp.  Nixon. 

Calories  in  the  steam 58  to  67$  74-5$ 

"        "     "    waste  gases 3.8  to     7.7              5.42 

"        "     li    unburnt  gases ...  2.4  to    9.7  traces 

"         "     "    smoke 0.3  to    0.75            none 

"         "     "    aqueous  vapor. .  2.0  to     3.7              2.81 

"        not  accounted  for 19.4  to  24.7  l7-^7 

On  September  20,  1895,  Engineering  published  the  results 
of  some  experiments  made  by  Bryan  Donkin  with  Nixon's 
coal  on  twenty  different  types  of  boilers.  The  following 
table  contains  some  of  them : 


Calories. 

XII. 

VIII. 

VI. 

VII. 

II. 

XI. 

III. 

IV. 

XX. 

I. 

78  e, 

78  1 

74.  A 

71  8 

69  8 

6    6 

fifi  •> 

6r  8 

6     * 

In  the  waste  gases  

6-5 

14.0 

13.8 

13.3 

13.6 

18.0 

16.2 

22.5 

18.0 

9.4 

In  the  combustible  gases.. 

o.o 

2.4 

0.8 

o.o 

1.2 

1.2 

0.0 

1.6 

12.7 

Not  accounted  for  

15.0 

5-8 

9-3 

14.0 

11.9 

IO-9 

9.6 

II.  0 

14.4 

13.9 

The  calories  in  the  steam  varied  from  63.8  to  78.5  per  cent. 

"     '*    waste  gases  "  "       6.5  to  22.5     "      " 

"    "    combustible  gases    "  "       o.o  to  12.7     "      " 

"        not  accounted  for  "  "       5.8  to  15.0     "      " 

For  the  method  of  properly  tabulating  the  heat   balance, 
see  section  XXI  of  the  Steam  Boiler  Code  on  page  193. 


l68  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

FLAME  AND  FLAME  TEMPERATURES. 

Whenever  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  high  to  raise  a, 
portion  of  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  or  other  gaseous  com- 
bustible to  incandescence,  flame  is  produced.  The  tempera- 
ture at  which  this  phenomenon  occurs  varies  with  the  sub- 
stance burnt.  Usually  it  requires  a  red  heat  or  higher,  but 
in  some  cases  a  much  lower  temperature  suffices :  bor-methyl 
B(CH3),  is  an  example,  the  flame  temperature  of  which  is  not 
high  enough  to  scorch  the  finger  placed  in  it.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  flame  should  have  solid  particles  in  it,  as  flame 
is  produced  by  hydrogen  burning  under  pressure  in  oxygen ; 
neither  is  incandescence  alone  sufficient,  as  the  fire  of  pure 
carbon,  magnesium,  or  iron  glows  but  does  not  flame. 
Flame  is  hollow,  the  combustion  occurring  on  the  surface, 
and  this  may  be  easily  demonstrated,  by  drawing  off  some  of 
the  interior  unconsumed  gases  with  a  tube  and  burning  them. 

Bunsen's  researches  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  tem- 
perature of  burning  carbonic  oxide  rapidly  rose  to  3000°  C., 
and  remained  stationary  till  one  third  of  it  was  consumed ; 
the  temperature  then  fell  to  2500°  C.,  at  which  more  burnt; 
and  finally  fell  to  about  1200°  C.,  which  temperature  was 
maintained  till  all  the  remainder  was  consumed.  Actually 
the  last  temperature  is  soon  reached  in  practice.  Berthelot 
confirms  this,  but  is  in  doubt  whether  the  loss  of  temperature 
is  due  to  dissociation  or  to  change  in  specific  heat.  Some 
hold  that  part  of  this  loss  of  heat  is  caused  by  its  absorption, 
due  to  the  production  of  incandescence  and  its  accompanying 
flame  phenomena.  A  gas  raised  to  incandescence  gradually 
manifests  each  increment  of  heat  till  that  point  is  reached, 
and  beyond  this  no  increase  is  noticed,  all  such  further 
increase  being  consumed  by  the  flame  production. 

The  rate  of  propagation  of  flame  varies  with  the  pressure 
and  with  the  material  burning.  The  most  rapid  rate  with 
coal  gas  is  when  it  is  mixed  with  5  parts  of  air;  with  marsh 


FLAME    TEMPERATURES.  169 

gas,  8J  parts  of  air.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  proportion  of 
oxygen  is  sensibly  less  than  that  required  for  perfect  conv 
bustion. 

The  luminosity  depends  on  the  compression  of  the  gases 
or  the  air.  Hydrogen  burning  in  oxygen  at  ordinary  pressure 
gives  a  flame  hardly  visible  at  all;  with  a  pressure  of  20  atmos- 
pheres it  becomes  quite  luminous.  Arsenic  in  burning  pro- 
duces quite  a  luminous  flame  at  ordinary  air  pressure;  but 
hardly  any  in  rarefied  air.  The  same  is  true  of  carbonic 
oxide  and  other  gases.  The  luminosity  seems  to  be  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  pressure. 

Luminosity  seems  to  be  greater  with  those  substances 
which  on  burning  produce  dense  vapors.  Hydrogen  and 
chlorine  produce  a  vapor  twice  as  heavy  as  water  and  the 
luminosity  is  much  stronger  than  with  the  oxygen-hydrogen 
flame.  Carbon  and  sulphur  also  produce  heavy  vapors  and 
much  light.  Phosphorus  burning  in  oxygen  produces  the 
dense  heavy  phosphoric  anhydride  and  this  is  accompanied 
with  an  almost  blinding  light. 

The  length  of  the  flame  ordinarily  depends  on  the  quantity 
of  hydrogen,  and  consequently  the  hydrocarbons  contained 
in,  or  generated  from,  the  body  consumed.  With  fuels  con- 
taining high  hydrocarbon  percentages,  flame  of  almost  any 
desired  length  can  be  produced.  This  is  especially  the  case 
with  gases. 

The  theoretical  temperature  of  combustion,  and  hence  of 
the  flame,  may  be  calculated  by  dividing  the  heat  units  pro- 
duced by  the  specific  heats  of  the  products  formed.  Of  course, 
these  theoretical  temperatures  are  never  reached  in  practice, 
but  they  serve  as  aids  in  determining  the  value  of  fuels  for 
certain  purposes. 

A  few  typical  examples  of  these  calculations  will  be  given. 

I.  Hydrogen.  —  Hydrogen  burnt  in  oxygen  produces 
29000  heat  units  (water  considered  as  vapor);  the  specific 
heat  of  the  aqueous  vapor  produced  is  0.475.  The  hydrogen 


1 70  CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

uses  8  times  its  weight  of  oxygen  and  generates  9   times  the 
quantity  of  water. 
Then 

29°00      =  6727°  C. 
9  X  0.479 

Bunsen  and  Sainte-Claire  Deville  showed  that  the  highest 
temperature  actually  obtained  is  2500°  C.,  which  may  be  in- 
creased to  2850°  C.  by  a  pressure  of  10  atmospheres. 

The  presence  of  nitrogen  modifies  the  result  materially. 
The  quantity  of  oxygen  required,  obtained  from  air,  would 
introduce  26.78  parts  of  nitrogen,  the  specific  heat  of  which 
is  0.244.  The  equation  would  then  be 

29000  —    6     °  C 

9  X  0.479  +  26.78  X  0.244  " 

Bunsen's  maximum  temperature  actually  reached  was 
1800°  C. 

2.  Carbon. — Carbon  burnt  to  carbonic  oxide  consumes 
1.33  parts  of  oxygen,  forms  2.33  parts  of  carbonic  oxide,  and 
if  burnt  in  air,  introduces  4.46  parts  of  nitrogen.  The  specific 
heat  of  carbonic  oxide  is  0.245  and  of  nitrogen  0.244,  as 
before.  The  heat  units  generated  are  2435. 

For  combustion  in  oxygen  the  equation  would  be 


2.33  X  0.245 
In  air  it  would  be 

2435 


=  1462°  C. 


2.33  X  0.245  +4-46  X  0.244 
The  latter  temperature  is  about  the  same  as  that  actually 
observed,  and  shows  that  but  little  dissociation  occurs. 
Owing  to  the  non-volatility  of  carbon  no  flame  is  produced, 
only  an  incandescence.  The  flame  we  ordinarily  see  on  in- 
candescent carbon  is  from  the  burning  of  carbonic  oxide. 
Carbon  burnt  to  carbon  dioxide  can  be  treated  similarly;  also 
carbonic  oxide  burnt  to  carbon  dioxide. 


FLAME    TEMPERATURES.  171 

3.  Marsh  Gas. — This  gas  requires  4  times  its  weight  of 
oxygen,  and  produces  2.25  parts  of  aqueous  vapor  and  2.75 
parts  of  carbonic  acid.  If  air  is  used,  13.39  parts  of  nitrogen 
are  introduced.  The  heat  of  combustion  is  13343  calories. 

The  equations  are,  then, 

13343 

2.25  X  0.479  +  2.75  X  0.217  " 
for  oxygen  and 

13343 


=  2245°C., 


2.25  X  0.479  +  2-75  X  0.217  +  13.39  X  0.244 

for  combustion  in  air. 

Olefiant  gas,  acetylene,  etc.,  can  be   calculated  similarly. 

With  a  mixed  gas,  i.e.,  one  containing  several  gases,  account 

must  be  taken  of  each  one  separately.      Producer  gas  will  be 

given  as  an  example. 

4.   Producer  Gas. — The  producer  gas  taken  will  be  assumed 

to  have  the  following  composition  by  volume : 

Carbonic  oxide ...    21.0  per  cent. 

Hydrogen   11.5     "       " 

Marsh  gas 2.0    "       " 

Carbonic  acid , ..      6.0    "       " 

Nitrogen 59.5     "       " 


100.0    "       " 

First  obtain  the  weight  of  the  constituents.  (See  the  tables.) 
0.21  X  1.2515  —  0.2628 
o.  1  1  5  X  0.0896  =  0.0103 
0.02  X  0.7155  =  0.0143 
0.06  X  1.9666  =£0.1360 
0.595  X  1.2561  =0.7474 

C02  H20  N 

CO   0.2628  produces.  ...   0.413  ____  0.502 

H      0.0103          "       ........  0.093  0.276 

CH4  0.0143          "        •:••'  0.039         0.032  0.192 
CO,  0.1360          "        ----  0.1^6           ____ 

N      0.7474         "       .............  0.747 


0.588        0.125 


17 2  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

Then  as  the  heat  of  combustion  is  747.66  by  volume  oi 
874.6  by  weight,  we  have  for  combustion  in  oxygen, 

874.6  _  0 

0.125  X  0.479  +  0.588  X  0.217+0.747  X  0.244"  *' 

and  for  combustion  in  air, 

874.6 _ 

0.125  X  0.479  +  0.588  X  0.217+  1.717  X  0.244" 

5.  Petroleum  Oil. — The  oil  may  be  assumed  to  contain 

Carbon 85  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 15     "     " 

100 

C   0.85  produces 3-H7  CO,    and    7.588  N 

Ho.i5          "        1.35  HaO  ....     "        "      4.017" 


1.35  H2O          1.117  CO2  11.605  N 

The  heat  of  combustion  may  be  assumed  at  10000  calories. 
Then  for  combustion  in  oxygen, 


1-35  X  0.479+  3-H7  X  0.217 
and  for  combustion  in  air, 

i  oooo 
1.35  X  0.479+3.117  X  0.217+  11.605  X  0.244 


=  2400°  C. 


Other  oils  or  solid  fuels  may  be  calculated  according  to 
this  model. 

At  the  end  of  the  volume  are  given  a  few  of  those  fuels 
most  commonly  used  with  the  theoretical  oxygen  and  air 
flame  temperatures. 


CARBON    VAPOR. 


WEIGHT   AND   HEAT   UNITS  OF   CARBON   VAPOR. 

Two  volumes  of  carbonic  oxide  are  produced  from  I  volume 
-of  oxygen,  and  hence  from  I  volume  of  carbon.  I  cubic 
metre  of  carbonic  oxide  weighs  1251  grams.  I  cubic  metre 
of  oxygen  weighs  1430  grams.  I  cubic  metre  of  carbonic 
oxide  contains,  then,  one-half  a  cubic  metre  of  oxygen  weigh- 
mg  7*5  grams,  and  one-half  a  cubic  metre  of  carbon  vapor 
weighing  536  grams.  Hence  I  cubic  metre  of  carbon  vapor 
weighs  2  X  536  =  1072  grams,  and  I  kilogram  measures 
I  :  1072  =  0.9328  cubic  metre. 
Or 

i  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  oxide  weighs  546.78  grains. 
I       "       "      "  oxygen  weighs  .......  624.85       " 

One  cubic  foot  CO  then  contains  %  cubic  foot  of  O  and  £ 
cubic  foot  of  C. 

546.78  -  312.425  =  234.355, 
and 

2  X  234.355  =  468.71  grains, 

weight  of  i  cubic  foot  of  carbon  vapor. 

One  pound  of  carbon  vapor  measures  14.93  cubic  feet. 

If  we  wish  the  heat-units  of  carbon  in  vapor  without  the 
heat  of  vaporization,  multiply  the  weight  of  a  cubic  metre  by 
the  heat  of  combustion  of  solid  carbon.  If  from  wood  charcoal, 

8137  X  1.072  =  8722(15699.6  B.  T.  U.). 
Jf  from  diamond, 

7859  X  1.072  =  8424(14963.2  B.T.  U.). 

If  carbon  vapor  with  its  heat  of  vaporization  be  wanted, 
take  the  heat  of  combustion  of  carbonic  oxide  which  contains 
carbon  as  vapor  and  compare  it  with  the  heat  of  combustion  of 
carbon,  uniting  with  the  same  quantity  of  oxygen  to  form 


OK   THS 

UNIVERSITY 


174  CALORIFIC  POWER   OF  FUELS. 

carbonic  oxide.  In  doing  so  it  is  supposed  that  carbon  in 
combining  with  two  atoms  of  oxygen  generates  the  same 
quantity  of  heat  with  one  as  with  the  other,  only  in  the  first 
case  part  of  the  heat  is  used  in  vaporizing  the  carbon.  This 
heat  is  found  by  subtracting  the  heat  of  combustion  of  the 
solid  carbon  from  that  of  the  carbon  supposed  gaseous  in 
carbonic  oxide. 

One  kilogram  of  carbon  unites  with  1.333  kilograms  of 
oxygen  to  form  2.333  kilograms  of  carbonic  oxide.  With 
diamond  there  is  generated  2405  calories.  The  2.333  kilograms 
of  carbonic  oxide  in  becoming  carbonic  acid  generates  2.333  X 
2435  =  568°  calories.  Then  I  kilogram  of  carbon  in  passing 
from  carbonic  oxide  to  carbonic  acid  generates  5680  calories. 
We  have  seen,  on  the  other  hand,  that  I  kilogram  of  diamond 
carbon  generates  2405  calories  in  becoming  carbonic  oxide. 
The  difference,  then,  5680  —  2405  =  3275(5895  B.  T.  U.)  cal- 
ories, represents  the  heat  of  vaporization  of  diamond  carbon. 
With  wood  charcoal  it  becomes  5680  —  2489  —  3191(5743.8 
B.  T.  U.). 

The  heat  of  combustion  will  be  then  7859  -(-  3275  =  1 1 134 
calories  (20041  B.  T.  U.)  for  diamond,  and  8137  -f-  3191  = 
11328  calories  (20390  B.  T.  U.)  for  wood  charcoal. 

EVAPORATIVE    POWER   OF    FUEL. 

The  evaporative  power  of  a  fuel  represents  the  number  of 
pounds  of  water  at  212°  F.  that  can  be  evaporated  or  con- 
verted into  steam  by  one  pound  of  the  fuel.  Water  at  that 
temperature  is  sufficiently  heated  to  vaporize,  but  needs  an 
addition  of  force  equivalent  to  that  required  for  the  vaporiza- 
tion. This  quantity  varies  for  the  pressure  of  the  barometer 
and  the  temperature  of  the  water,  but  for  the  purposes  of  cal- 
culation is  considered  to  be  taken  at  30  inches  of  mercury  and 
212°  F.  Experiment  has  shown  the  equivalent  to  be  965.7 
heatunits  (B.  T.  U.). 


EVAPORATIVE    POWER. 

To  find  the  theoretical  evaporating  power  of  a  fuel,  then, 
divide  the  number  of  thermal  units  it  generates  on  combus- 
tion by  965.7.  For  instance,  the  heat  of  combustion  of  a 
sample  of  Illinois  coal  was  determined  by  Prof.  Carpenter  to 
be  13200.  Its  evaporative  power  would  be 

13200 

==  13-67  pounds. 


This  means  that  under  the  proper  conditions  one  pound 
of  the  coal  in  question  would  evaporate  13.67  pounds  already 
heated  to  212°  F. 

But  this  amount  of  duty  is  rarely  realized.  The  boiler 
may  not  be  well  built,  the  setting  may  be  faulty,  and  there 
are  numerous  other  chemical  or  mechanical  conditions  which 
modify  the  yield.  With  these  no  rule  can  be  established  ; 
each  individual  case  must  be  allowed  for  specially.  With 
ashes  and  moisture,  chemical  constituents  of  the  coal,  the 
case  is  different.  A  percentage  allowance  for  these  will  usually 
suffice. 

For  instance,  in  the  above  coal  there  was  5.12  per  cent  of 
water  and  15.2  per  cent  of  ash.  Then 

100  —  (15.2  -f-  5.12)  X   13.67  =  12.23  pounds. 

If  deemed  necessary,  a  further  correction  can  be  made  for 
the  water  of  the  coal,  which  would  reduce  the  evaporation  by 
its  own  amount.  This  correction  would  become 

12.23  ~~  °-°5  —   12.  18  pounds 

as  the   quantity  which   should  be  evaporated  with  the  coal  as 
analyzed. 

The  quantity  of  ash  produces  an  effect  on  the  evaporative 
power  aside  from  its  proportional  reduction  in  combustible. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  where  a  large  percentage  of  ash 
occurs,  the  particles  of  carbon  of  the  fuel  are  not  burnt  com- 


CALORIFIC  POWER    OF  FUELS. 

pletely,  owing  to  being  enclosed  in  the  ash  and  consequently 
shut  off  from  access  of  air.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
those  ashes  which  are  easily  fuzed  by  the  heat  of  the  fire. 
Ashes  containing  carbonates  are  much  more  easily  fuzed  than 
those  containing  phosphates  or  sulphates.  On  this  account  a 
chemical  analysis  of  the  ash  is  at  times  quite  desirable. 

Some  difference  in  evaporation  is  noticed  in  using  the  dif- 
ferent sizes  of  coal,  more  particularly  with  the  fine  sizes. 
With  the  proper  arrangements  for  burning  fires  a  good  yield 
is  obtained,  but  with  the  ordinary  grates  the  yield  is  much 
lower. 


APPENDIX. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  THE  REVISION  OF  THE 
SOCIETY  CODE  OF  1885,  RELATIVE  TO  A  STANDARD 
METHOD  OF  CONDUCTING  STEAM-BOILER  TRIALS. 

Presented  to  the  New  York   meeting  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechani 
cal   Engineers,  December  1899,   and   forming  a   part    of  the   Transac- 
tions, Volume  XXL 

To  THE  AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 

Gentlemen :  The  undersigned  Committee,  to  which  was 
submitted  the  revision  of  the  Society  Code  of  1885,  relative 
to  a  standard  method  of  conducting  steam-boiler  trials,  re- 
ports as  follows : 

The  Committee  of  1885  presented  a  full  statement  of  the 
principles  which  governed  it  in  the  preparation  of  the  Code  of 
Rules  at  that  time  recommended.  These  principles  covered 
the  ground  in  an  admirable  manner,  so  far  as  the  practice  of 
boiler  testing  had  been  perfected,  and  we  are  in  unanimous 
accord  with  the  sentiments  which  the  report  of  that  Com- 
mittee expressed.  During  the  interval  of  thirteen  years 
which  has  passed,  methods  and  instruments  have  in  some 
measure  changed.  Improvements  have  been  made  in  the  in- 
struments for  determining  the  moisture  in  steam.  The 
throttling  and  separating  forms  of  calorimeters  have  displaced 
the  barrel  and  other  types  of  steam  calorimeters  referred  to  in 
the  previous  report.  Attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  de- 
termination of  the  calorific  value  of  coal,  and  a  number  of 
coal  calorimeters  have  been  brought  out  and  successfully 
used  for  this  purpose.  It  has  come  to  be  a  practice  with 
many  experts  to  include  in  the  table  of  results  of  boiler 
tests  the  percentage  of  "  efficiency,"  or  proportion  of  the 

177 


178  APPENDIX. 

calorific  value  of  the  coal  which  is  utilized  by  the  boiler. 
Specifications  and  contracts  are  in  some  cases  drawn  up,  provid- 
ing for  certain  percentages  of  efficiency  instead  of  a  specified 
evaporation.  The  analysis  of  flue  gases  is  receiving  more  at- 
tention than  formerly,  not  only  in  our  educational  institutions, 
but  also  in  the  regular  practice  of  engineers  who  make  a  spe- 
cialty of  boiler  testing. 

Tour  Committee  submits  a  revised  Code,  termed  the  Code 
of  1899.  The  changes  are  mainly  in  the  line  of  amendments 
such  as  the  experience  of  the  last  thirteen  years  has  shown  to 
be  desirable.  The  amendments  relate  to  the  use  of  improved 
steam  calorimeters,  to  sampling  coal  and  determining  its  moist- 
ure, to  calorific  tests  and  analysis  of  coal,  to  analysis  of  flue 
gases,  to  smoke  observations,  to  determinations  of  efficiency, 
and  to  methods  of  working  out  the  "heat  balance." 

The  tabular  form  of  presenting  the  results  of  the  test  is  some- 
what changed  and  enlarged,  and  alterations  in  the  text  of  the 
Code  are  made  wherever  needed.  At  the  same  time  a  second  or 
"  short  form  "  of  report  is  added,  for  use  in  commercial  tests  or 
in  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  give  only  the  principal  data 
and  results. 

It  is  beyond  the  province  of  the  Committee  to  recommend  in- 
struments of  particular  makers  for  obtaining  the  quality  of  the 
steam,  the  calorific  value  of  the  fuel,  or  any  other  data  relating 
to  the  trial ;  but  following  the  practice  of  the  former  Commit- 
tee, individual  members  have  submitted  their  views  (with  the 
approval  of  the  full  membership)  in  an  "  Appendix  to  the  1899 
Code,"  signed  by  their  initials.  In  this  appendix  are  included 
some  of  the  articles  from  the  appendix  to  the  former  Code, 
which  are  thought  to  be  of  especial  value. 

In  the  matter  of  instruments  for  determining  the  calorific 
value  of  fuel,  it  seems  desirable  that  the  Committee  should 
make  a  recommendation  which  is  as  specific  as  present  knowl- 
edge and  circumstances  will  warrant.  It  is  agreed  that  some 
form  of  calorimeter  in  which  the  coal  is  burned  in  an  atmo- 
sphere of  oxygen  gas  is  to  be  preferred,  and  it  is  generally  held 
that  the  most  perfect  apparatus  thus  far  brought  out  is  the 
Bomb  Calorimeter,  originally  designed  by  Berthelot  and  modi- 
fied by  Mahler  and  Hempel.  Several  of  these  instruments  are 
in  use  in  this  country,  principally  in  the  laboratories  of  engineer- 
ing schools ;  but  the  apparatus  is  complicated  and  expensive, 


APPENDIX.  179 

and  it  is  not  probable  that  many  engineers  will  have  the  instru- 
ment as  a  part  of  their  equipment  for  testing  boilers.  It  is 
recom mended,  therefore,  that  samples  of  the  coal  used  in  test- 
ing boilers  be  sent  for  determinations  of  their  heating  value  to 
a  testing  laboratory  provided  with  one  of  these  instruments, 
or  with  some  instrument  which  shall  be  proven  to  be  equally 
good.  .  (Article  XYIL,  Code.) 

The  Committee  approves  the  conclusions  of  the  1885  Code  to 
the  effect  that  the  standard  uunit  of  evaporation"  should  be 
one  pound  of  water  at  212  degrees  Fahr.  evaporated  into  dry 
steam  of  the  same  temperature.  This  unit  is  equivalent  to  965.7 
British  thermal  units. 

The  Committee  recommends  that,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
capacity  of  a  boiler  be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  "number  of 
pounds  of  water  evaporated  per  hour  from  and  at  212  degrees.'* 
It  does  not  seem  expedient,  however,  to  abandon  the  widely 
recognized  measure  of  capacity  of  stationary  or  land  boilers 
expressed  in  terms  of  "boiler  horse-power." 

The  unit  of  commercial  boiler  horse-power  adopted  by  the 
Committee  of  1885  was  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  reports  of 
the  boiler  tests  made  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876.  The 
Committee  of  1885  reported  in  favor  of  this  standard  in  lan- 
guage of  which  the  following  is  an  extract : 

"  Your  Committee,  after  due  consideration,  has  determined  to 
accept  the  Centennial  standard,  and  to  recommend  that  in  all 
standard  trials  the  commercial  horse-power  be  taken  as  an  evapo- 
ration of  30  pounds  of  water  per  hour  from  a  feed-water  tem- 
perature of  100  degrees  Fahr.  into  steam  at  70  pounds  gauge 
pressure,  which  shall  be  considered  to  be  equal  to  34J  units  of 
evaporation  ;  that  is,  to  34£  pounds  of  water  evaporated  from  a 
feed- water  temperature  of  212  degrees  Fahr.  into  steam  at  the 
same  temperature.  This  standard  is  equal  to  33,305  thermal 
units  per  hour." 

The  present  Committee  accepts  the  same  standard,  but  re- 
verses the  order  of  two  clauses  in  the  statement,  and  slightly 
modifies  them  to  read  as  follows  : 

The  unit  of  commercial  horse-power  developed  by  a  boiler 
shall  be  taken  as  34J  units  of  evaporation  per  hour  ;  that  is,  34J 
pounds  of  water  evaporated  per  hour  from  a  feed-water  tem- 
perature of  212  degrees  Fahr.  into  dry  steam  of  the  same  tem- 
perature. This  standard  is  equivalent  to  33,317  British  thermal 


ISO  APPENDIX. 

units  per  hour.  It  is  also  practically  equivalent  to  an  evapora- 
tion of  30  pounds  of  water  from  a  feed-water  temperature  of  100 
degrees  Fahr.  into  steam  at  70  pounds  gauge  pressure.* 

The  Committee  also  indorses  the  statement  of  the  Committee 
of  1885  concerning  the  commercial  rating  of  boilers,  changing 
somewhat  its  wording,  so  as  to  read  as  follows : 

A  boiler  rated  at  any  stated  capacity  should  develop  that 
capacity  when  using  the  best  coal  ordinarily  sold  in  the  market 
where  the  boiler  is  located,  when  fired  by  an  ordinary  fireman, 
without  forcing  the  fires,  while  exhibiting  good  economy  ;  and, 
further,  the  boiler  should  develop  at  least  one-third  more  than 
the  stated  capacity  when  using  the  same  fuel  and  operated  by 
the  same  fireman,  the  full  draft  being  employed  and  the  fires 
being  crowded  ;  the  available  draft  at  the  damper,  unless  other- 
wise understood,  being  not  less  than  \  inch  water  column. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

CHAS.  E.  EMERY,  f 
WM.  KENT, 
GEO.  H.  BARRUS, 
CHAS.  T.  POUTER, 
ROBERT  H.  THURSTON,    ' 
ROBERT  W.  HUNT, 
F.  W.  DEAN, 
J.  S.  COON, 
WM.  B.  POTTER,  j 

*  According  to  the  tables  in  Porter's  Treatise  on  the  Richards  Steam  Engine- 
Indicator,  an  evaporation  of  30  pounds  of  water  from  100  degrees  Fahr.  into 
steam  at  70  pounds  pressure  is  equal  to  an  evaporation  of  34.488  pounds  from 
and  at  212  degrees  ;  and  an  evaporation  of  34£  pounds  from  and  at  212  degree* 
Fahr.  is  equal  to  30.010  pounds  from  100  degrees  Fahr.  into  steam  at  70  pounds- 
pressure. 

The  "  unit  of  evaporation"  being  equivalent  to  965.7  thermal  units,  the  com- 
mercial horse-power  =  34.5  x  965.7  =  33,317  thermal  units. 

f  The  motion  for  the  appointment  of  this  Committee  was  made  by  Mr. 
Barrus  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  Mr.  Dean's  paper,  No.  DCL.,  OB 
"  The  Efficiency  of  Boilers,"  etc.  The  President  of  the  Society  designated  Mr. 
Kent,  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  1884,  to  call  the  first  meeting  of  the  new 
Committee.  At  that  meeting,  on  motion  of  Mr.  Kent,  Dr.  Emery  was  selected 
as  chairman,  and  he  conducted  the  preliminary  correspondence.  The  draft  of 
report  in  the  form  originally  printed  and  presented  for  criticism  at  the  Annual 
Meeting  in  December,  1897,  was  prepared  by  a  sub-committee  consisting  of 
Messrs.  Emery,  Porter,  Barrus,  and  Kent.  Much  of  the  work  of  revision  of  this 
preliminary  draft  was  done  by  Dr.  Emery  a  few  weeks  before  his  death  in  June, 
1898,  and  the  final  revision,  bringing  the  report  to  its  present  form,  was  done  by 
Messrs.  Barrus  and  Kent. 


APPENDIX.  II 

EULES  FOK  CONDUCTING  BOILER  TEIALS. 

CODE  OF  1899. 

I.  Determine  at  the  outset  the  specific  object  of  the  proposed 
trial,  whether  it  be  to  ascertain  the  capacity  of  the  boiler,  its- 
efficiency  as  a  steam  generator,  its  efficiency  and  its  defects  under 
usual  working  conditions,  the  economy  of  some  particular  kind 
of  fuel,  or  the  effect  of  changes  of  design,  proportion,  or  opera- 
tion ;  and  prepare  for  the  trial  accordingly. 

II.  Examine  the  boiler,  both  outside  and  inside ;  ascertain  the 
dimensions  of  grates,  heating  surfaces,  and  all  important  parts  -y 
and  make  a  full  record,  describing  the  same,  and  illustrating 
special  features  by  sketches.     The  area  of  heating  surface  is  to 
be  computed  from  the  surfaces  of  shells,  tubes,  furnaces,  and  fire- 
boxes in  contact  with  the  fire  or  hot  gases.     The  outside  diam- 
eter of  water-tubes  and  the  inside  diameter  of  fire-tubes   are 
to  be  used  in  the  computation.     All  surfaces  below  the  mean 
water  level  which  have  water  on  one  side  and  products  of  com- 
bustion  on  the   other   are  to  be  considered  as  water-heating 
surface,  and  all  surfaces   above  the   mean  water  level   which 
have  steam  on  one  side  and  products  of  combustion  on  the 
other  are  to  be  considered  as  superheating  surface. 

III.  Notice  the  general  condition  of  the  boiler  and  its  equipment, 
and  record  such  facts  in  relation  thereto  as  bear  upon  the  objects 
in  view. 

If  the  object  of  the  trial  is  to  ascertain  the  maximum  economy 
or  capacity  of  the  boiler  as  a  steam  generator,  the  boiler  and  all 
its  appurtenances  should  be  put  in  first-class  condition.  Clean 
the  heating  surface  inside  and  outside,  remove  clinkers  from 
the  grates  and  from  the  sides  of  the  furnace.  Remove  all  dust, 
soot,  and  ashes  from  the  chambers,  smoke  connections,  and 
flues.  Close  air  leaks  in  the  masonry  and  poorly  fitted  clean- 
ing doors.  See  that  the  damper  will  open  wide  and  close  tight. 
Test  for  air  leaks  by  firing  a  few  shovels  of  smoky  fuel  and  im- 
mediately closing  the  damper,  observing  the  escape  of  smoke 
through  the  crevices,  or  by  passing  the  flame  of  a  candle  over 
cracks  in  the  brickwork. 

IY.  Determine  the  character  of  the  coal  to  be  used.  For  tests 
of  the  efficiency  or  capacity  of  the  boiler  for  comparison  with 
other  boilers  the  coal  should,  if  possible,  be  of  some  kind  which 
is  commercially  regarded  as  a  standard.  For  New  England 


182  APPENDIX. 

and  that  portion  of  the  country  east  of  the  Allegheny  Moun- 
tains, good  anthracite  egg  coal,  containing  not  over  10  per  cent, 
of  ash,  and  semi-bituminous  Clearfield  (Pa.),  Cumberland  (Md.), 
and  Pocahontas  (Va.)  coals  are  thus  regarded.  West  of  the 
Allegheny  Mountains,  Pocahontas  (Ya.)  and  New  Eiver  (W.  Va.) 
semi-bituminous,  and  Youghiogheny  or  Pittsburg  bituminous 
coals  are  recognized  as  standards.*  There  is  no  special  grade 
of  coal  mined  in  the  Western  States  which  is  widely  recognized 
as  of  superior  quality  or  considered  as  a  standard  coal  for 
boiler  testing.  Big  Muddy  lump,  an  Illinois  coal  mined  in 
Jackson  County,  111.,  is  suggested  as  being  of  sufficiently  high 
grade  to  answer  these  requirements  in  districts  where  it  is  more 
conveniently  obtainable  than  the  other  coals  mentioned  above. 

For  tests  made  to  determine  the  performance  of  a  boiler  with 
a  particular  kind  of  coal,  such  as  may  be  specified  in  a  contract 
for  the  sale  of  a  boiler,  the  coal  used  should  not  be  higher  in 
ash  and  in  moisture  than  that  specified,  since  increase  in  ash 
and  moisture  above  a  stated  amount  is  apt  to  cause  a  falling  off 
of  both  capacity  and  economy  in  greater  proportion  than  the 
proportion  of  such  increase. 

V.  Establish  the  correctness  of  all  apparatus  used  in  the  test  for 
weighing  and  measuring.     These  are  : 

1.  Scales  for  weighing  coal,  ashes,  and  water. 

2.  Tanks,  or  water  meters  for  measuring  water.     Water  me- 
ters, as  a  rule,  should  only  be  used  as  a  check  on  other  measure- 
ments.    For  accurate  work,  the  water  should  be  weighed  or 
measured  in  a  tank. 

3.  Thermometers  and  pyrometers  for  taking  temperatures  of 
air,  steam,  feed-water,  waste  gases,  etc. 

4.  Pressure  gauges,  draught  gauges,  etc. 

The  kind  and  location  of  the  various  pieces  of  testing  appara- 
tus must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  person  conducting  the 
test ;  always  keeping  in  mind  the  main  object,  i.e.,  to  obtain 
authentic  data. 

VI.  See  that  the  boiler  is  thoroughly  heated  before  the  trial  to 
its  usual  working  temperature.     If  the  boiler  is  new  and  of  a 
form  provided  with  a  brick  setting,  it  should  be  in  regular  use 

*  These  coals  are  selected  because  they  are  about  the  only  coals  which  r>ossess 
the  essentials  of  excellence  of  quality,  adaptability  to  various  kinds  of  furnaces, 
grates,  boilers,  and  methods  of  firing,  and  wide  distribution  and  general  accessi- 
bility in  the  markets. 


APPENDIX.  183 

:at  least  a  week  before  the  trial,  so  as  to  dry  and  heat  the  walls. 
If  it  has  been  laid  off  and  become  cold,  it  should  be  worked 
before  the  trial  until  the  walls  are  well  heated. 

VII.  The  boiler  and  connections  should  be  proved  to  be  free  from 
leaks  before  beginning  a  test,  and  all  water  connections,  includ- 
ing blow  and  extra  feed  pipes,  should  be  disconnected,  stopped 
with  blank  flanges,  or  bled  through  special  openings  beyond  the 
valves,  except  the  particular  pipe  through  which  water  is  to  be 
fed  to  the  boiler  during  the  trial.  During  the  test  the  blow-off 
and  feed  pipes  should  remain  exposed  to  view. 

If  an  injector  is  used,  it  should  receive  steam  directly  through 
a  felted  pipe  from  the  boiler  being  tested.* 

If  the  water  is  metered  after  it  passes  the  injector,  its  tem- 
perature should  be  taken  at  the  point  where  it  leaves  the  injector. 
If  the  quantity  is  determined  before  it  goes  to  the  injector  the 
temperature  should  be  determined  on  the  suction  side  of  the 
injector,  and  if  no  change  of  temperature  occurs  other  than  that 
due  to  the  injector,  the  temperature  thus  determined  is  properly 
that  of  the  feed- water.  When  the  temperature  changes  between 
the  injector  and  the  boiler,  as  by  the  use  of  a  heater  or  by  radi- 
ation, the  temperature  at  which  the  water  enters  and  leaves  the 
injector  and  that  at  which  it  enters  the  boiler  should  all  be 
taken.  In  that  case  the  weight  to  be  used  is  that  of  the  water 
leaving  the  injector,  computed  from  the  heat  units  if  not 
directly  measured,  and  the  temperature,  that  of  the  water 
entering  the  boiler. 

Let  w  =  weight  of  water  entering  the  injector. 
x  =      "         "  steam      " 

Aj  =  heat  units  per  pound  of  water  entering  injector. 
A2  =     "         "       "         "        "  steam       "  " 

h,  =     "         "       "         "        "  water  leaving 
Then,  w  +  x  =  weight  of  water  leaving  injector. 

x  =  w 


-  h. 


*  In  feeding  a  boiler  undergoing  test  with  an  injector  taking  steam  from  another 
boiler,  or  from  the  main  steam  pipe  from  several  boilers,  the  evaporative  results 
may  be  modified  by  a  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  steam  from  such  source 
compared  with  that  supplied  by  the  boiler  being  tested,  and  in  some  cases  the 
connection  to  the  injector  may  act  as  a  drip  for  the  main  steam  pipe.  If  it  is 
known  that  the  steam  from  the  main  pipe  is  of  the  same  pressure  and  quality  as 
that  furnished  by  the  boiler  undergoing  the  test,  the  steam  may  be  taken  from, 
such  main  pipe. 


1 84  APPENDIX. 

See  that  the  steam  main  is  so  arranged  that  water  of  con- 
densation cannot  run  back  into  the  boiler. 

VIII.  Duration  of  the  Test. — For  tests  made  to  ascertain  either 
the  maximum  economy  or  the  maximum  capacity  of  a  boiler,  irre- 
spective of  the  particular  class  of  service  for  which  it  is  regularly 
used,  the  duration  should  be  at  least  10  hours  of  continuous  run- 
ning.    If  the  rate  of  combustion  exceeds  25  pounds  of  coal  per 
squar,e  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour,  it  may  be  stopped  when  a  to- 
tal of  250  pounds  of  coal  has  been  burned  per  square  foot  of  grate. 

In  cases  where  the  service  requires  continuous  running  for 
the  whole  24  hours  of  the  day,  with  shifts  of  firemen  a  number 
of  times  during  that  period,  it  is  well  to  continue  the  test  for  at 
least  24  hours. 

When  it  is  desired  to  ascertain  the  performance  under  the 
working  conditions  of  practical  running,  whether  the  boiler  be 
regularly  in  use  24  hours  a  day  or  only  a  certain  number  of 
hours  out  of  each  24,  the  fires  being  banked  the  balance  of  the 
time,  the  duration  should  not  be  less  than  24  hours. 

IX.  Starting  and  Stopping  a  Test. — The  conditions  of  the  boiler 
and  furnace  in  all  respects  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the 
same  at  the  end  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  test.     The  steam 
pressure  should  be  the  same  ;  the  water  level  the  same ;  the  fire 
upon  the  grates  should  be  the  same  in  quantity  and  condition ; 
and  the  walls,  flues,  etc.,  should  be  of  the  same   temperature. 
Two  methods  of  obtaining  the  desired  equality  of  conditions  of 
the  fire  may  be  used,  viz.  :  those  which  were  called  in  the  Code 
of  1885  "  the  standard  method  "  and  "  the  alternate  method," 
the   latter  being  employed  where  it  is  inconvenient  to  make 
use  of  the  standard  method.* 

X.  Standard  Method  of  Starting  and  Stopping  a  Test. — Steam 
being   raised    to    the   working    pressure,   remove    rapidly   all 
the  fire  from  the  grate,  close  the  damper,  clean  the  ash   pifcr 
and   as   quickly   as   possible    start   a    new  fire    with    weighed 
wood   and   coal,  noting  the  time  and  the  water  level  f   while 

*  The  Committee  concludes  that  it  is  best  to  retain  the  designations  "stand- 
ard" and  "  alternate,"  since  they  have  become  widely  known  and  established  in 
the  minds  of  engineers  and  in  the  reprints  of  the  Code  of  1885.  Many  engineers 
prefer  the  "alternate"  to  the  "standard"  method  on  account  of  its  being  less 
liable  to  error  due  to  cooling  of  the  boiler  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  test. 

f  The  gauge-glass  should  not  be  blown  out  within  an  hour  before  the  water 
level  is  taken  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  test,  otherwise  an  error  in  the  read- 
ing of  the  water  level  may  be  caused  by  a  change  in  the  temperature  and  density 
of  the  water  in  the  pipe  leading  from  the  bottom  of  the  glass  into  the  boiler. 


APPENDIX. 

the   water   is   in   a   quiescent    state,  just   before   lighting    the 
fire. 

At  the  end  of  the  test  remove  the  whole  fire,  which  has 
"been  burned  low,  clean  the  grates  and  ash  pit,  and  note  the 
water  level  when  the  water  is  in  a  quiescent  state,  and 
record  the  time  of  hauling  the  fire.  The  water  level  should 
be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  at  the  beginning  of  the 
test.  If  it  is  not  the  same,  a  correction  should  be  made  by 
computation,  and  not  by  operating  the  pump  after  the  test  is 
completed. 

XI.  Alternate  Method  of  Starting  and   Stopping  a   Test. — The 
boiler  being  thoroughly  heated  by  a  preliminary  run,  the  fires 
are  to  be  burned  low  and  well  cleaned.     Note  the  amount  of 
coal  left  on  the  grate  as  nearly  as  it  can  be  estimated  ;  note  the 
pressure   of  steam  and  the  water  level.     Note    the   time,  and 
record  it  as  the  starting  time.      Fresh    coal  which    has  been 
weighed  should  now  be  fired.     The  ash  pits  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  at  once  after  starting.     Before  the  end  of  the 
test  the  fires  should  be  burned  low,  just  as  before  the  start,  and 
the  fires  cleaned  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  a  bed  of  coal  on 
the  grates  of  the  same  depth,  and  in  the  same  condition,  as  at 
the  start.     When  this  stage  is  reached,  note  the  time  and  record 
it  as  the  stopping  time.     The  water  level  and  steam  pressures 
should  previously  be  brought  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  same 
point  as  at  the  start.     If  the  water  level  is  not  the  same  as  at 
the  start,  a  correction  should  be  made  by  computation,  and  not 
by  operating  the  pump  after  the  test  is  completed. 

XII.  Uniformity  of  Conditions. — In  all  trials  made  to  ascertain 
maximum  economy  or  capacity,  the  conditions  should  be  main- 
tained uniformly  constant.     Arrangements  should  be  made  to 
dispose  of  the  steam  so  that  the  rate  of  evaporation  may  be 
kept  the  same  from  beginning   to  end.      This  may  be  accom- 
plished in  a  single   boiler  by  carrying  the  steam  through    a 
waste  steam  pipe,  the  discharge  from  which  can  be  regulated  as 
desired.     In  a  battery  of  boilers,  in  which  only  one  is  tested, 
the  draft  may  be  regulated  on  the  remaining  boilers,  leaving  the 
test  boiler  to  work  under  a  constant  rate  of  production. 

Uniformity  of  conditions  should  prevail  as  to  the  pressure  of 
steam,  the  height  of  water,  the  rate  of  evaporation,  the  thickness 
of  fire,  the  times  of  firing  and  quantity  of  coal  fired  at  one  time, 
and  as  to  the  intervals  between  the  times  of  cleaning  the  fires. 


1 86  APPENDIX. 

The  method  of  firing  to  be  carried  on  in  such  tests  should  be 
dictated  by  the  expert  or  person  in  responsible  charge  of  the 
test,  and  the  method  adopted  should  be  adhered  to  by  the  fire- 
man throughout  the  test. 

XIII.  Keeping  the  Records. — Take  note  of   every  event  con- 
nected with  the  progress  of  the  trial,  however  unimportant  it 
may  appear.      Record  the  time  of  every  occurrence  and  the 
time  of  taking  every  weight  and  every  observation. 

The  coal  should  be  weighed  and  delivered  to  the  fireman  in 
equal  proportions,  each  sufficient  for  not  more  than  one  hour's 
run,  and  a  fresh  portion  should  not  be  delivered  until  the  pre- 
vious one  has  all  been  fired.  The  time  required  to  consume 
each  portion  should  be  noted,  the  time  being  recorded  at  the 
instant  of  firing  the  last  of  each  portion.  It  is  desirable  that  at 
the  same  time  the  amount  of  water  fed  into  the  boiler  should  be 
accurately  noted  and  recorded,  including  the  height  of  the 
water  in  the  boiler,  and  the  average  pressure  of  steam  and  tem- 
perature of  feed  during  the  time.  By  thus  recording  the 
amount  of  water  evaporated  by  successive  portions  of  coal,  the 
test  may  be  divided  into  several  periods  if  desired,  and  the  de- 
gree of  uniformity  of  combustion,  evaporation,  and  economy 
analyzed  for  each  period.  In  addition  to  these  records  of  the 
coal  and  the  feed  water,  half  hourly  observations  should  be  made 
of  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water,  of  the  flue  gases,  of  the 
external  air  in  the  boiler-room,  of  the  temperature  of  the  fur- 
nace when  a  furnace  pyrometer  is  used,  also  of  the  pressure  of 
steam,  and  of  the  readings  of  the  instruments  for  determining 
the  moisture  in  the  steam.  A  log  should  be  kept  on  properly 
prepared  blanks  containing  columns  for  record  of  the  various 
observations. 

When  the  "  standard  method "  of  starting  and  stopping  the 
test  is  used,  the  hourly  rate  of  combustion  and  of  evaporation 
and  the  horse-power  should  be  computed  from  the  records  taken 
during  the  time  when  the  fires  are  in  active  condition.  This 
time  is  somewhat  less  than  the  actual  time  which  elapses  be- 
tween the  beginning  and  end  of  the  run.  The  loss  of  time  due 
to  kindling  the  fire  at  the  beginning  and  burning  it  out  at  the 
end  makes  this  course  necessary. 

XIV.  Quality  of  Steam. — The  percentage  of  moisture  in  the 
steam  should  be  determined  by  the  use  of  either  a  throttling  or 


APPENDIX.  I/ 

a  separating  steam  calorimeter.  The  sampling  nozzle  should 
be  placed  in  the  vertical  steam  pipe  rising  from  the  boiler.  It 
should  be  made  of  J-inch  pipe,  and  should  extend  across  the 
diameter  of  the  steam  pipe  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  oppo- 
site side,  being  closed  at  the  end  and  perforated  with  not  less 
than  twenty  J-inch  holes  equally  distributed  along  and  around 
its  cylindrical  surface,  but  none  of  these  holes  should  be  nearer 
than  J  inch  to  the  inner  side  of  the  steam  pipe.  The  calorim- 
eter and  the  pipe  leading  to  it  should  be  well  covered  with 
felting.  Whenever  the  indications  of  the  throttling  or  separat- 
ing calorimeter  show  that  the  percentage  of  moisture  is  irregu- 
lar, or  occasionally  in  excess  of  three  per  cent.,  the  results  should 
be  checked  by  a  steam  separator  placed  in  the  steam  pipe  as 
close  to  the  boiler  as  convenient,  with  a  calorimeter  in  the  steam 
pipe  just  beyond  the  outlet  from  the  separator.  The  drip  from 
the  separator  should  be  caught  and  weighed,  and  the  percent- 
age of  moisture  computed  therefrom  added  to  that  shown  by 
the  calorimeter. 

Superheating  should  be  determined  by  means  of  a  thermome- 
ter placed  in  a  mercury  well  inserted  in  the  steam  pipe.  The 
degree  of  superheating  should  be  taken  as  the  difference  be- 
tween the  reading  of  the  thermometer  for  superheated  steam 
and  the  readings  of  the  same  thermometer  for  saturated  steam 
at  the  same  pressure  as  determined  by  a  special  experiment, 
and  not  by  reference  to  steam  tables. 

For  calculations  relating  to  quality  of  steam  and  corrections 
for  quality  of  steam,  see  pages  119  and  123. 

XV.  Sampling  the  Coal  and  Determining  its  Moisture. — As 
each  barrow  load  or  fresh  portion  of  coal  is  taken  from  the  coal 
pile,  a  representative  shovelful  is  selected  from  it  and  placed  in 
a  barrel  or  box  in  a  cool  place  and  kept  until  the  end  of  the 
trial.  The  samples  are  then  mixed  and  broken  into  pieces  not 
exceeding  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  reduced  by  the  process  of 
repeated  quartering  and  crushing  until  a  final  sample  weighing 
about  five  pounds  is  obtained,  and  the  size  of  the  larger  pieces, 
are  such  that  they  will  pass  through  a  sieve  with  J-inch  meshes. 
From  this  sample  two  one-quart,  air-tight  glass  preserving  jars, 
or  other  air-tight  vessels  which  will  prevent  the  escape  of  moist- 
ure from  the  sample,  are  to  be  promptly  filled,  and  these  sam- 
ples are  to  be  kept  for  subsequent  determinations  of  moisture 
and  of  heating  value  and  for  chemical  analyses.  During  the 


1 88  APPENDIX. 

process  of  quartering,  when  the  sample  has  been  reduced  to 
about  100  pounds,  a  quarter  to  a  half  of  it  may  be  taken  for  an 
approximate  determination  of  moisture.  This  may  be  made  by 
placing  it  in  a  shallow  iron  pan,  not  over  three  inches  deep, 
carefully  weighing  it,  and  setting  the  pan  in  the  hottest  place 
that  can  be  found  on  the  brickwork  of  the  boiler  setting  or  flues, 
keeping  it  there  for  at  least  12  hours,  and  then  weighing  it. 
The  determination  of  moisture  thus  made  is  believed  to  be  ap- 
proximately accurate  for  anthracite  and  semi-bituminous  coals, 
and  also  for  Pittsburg  or  Youghiogheny  coal ;  but  it  cannot  be 
relied  upon  for  coals  mined  west  of  Pittsburg,  or  for  other  coals 
containing  inherent  moisture.  For  these  latter  coals  it  is  impor- 
tant that  a  more  accurate  method  be  adopted.  The  method 
recommended  by  the  Committee  for  all  accurate  tests,  whatever 
the  character  of  the  coal,  is  described  as  follows  : 

Take  one  of  the  samples  contained  in  the  glass  jars,  and 
subject  it  to  a  thorough  air-drying,  by  spreading  it  in  a  thin  layer 
and  exposing  it  for  several  hours  to  the  atmosphere  of  a  warm 
loom,  weighing  it  before  and  after,  thereby  determining  the  quan- 
tity of  surface  moisture  it  contains.  Then  crush  the  whole  of  it  by 
Tunning  it  through  an  ordinary  coffee  mill  adjusted  so  as  to  pro- 
duce somewhat  coarse  grains  (less  than  TVinch),  thoroughly  mix 
the  crushed  sample,  select  from  it  a  portion  of  from  10  to  50 
grams,  weigh  it  in  a  balance  which  will  easily  show  a  variation 
as  small  as  1  part  in  1,000,  and  dry  it  in  an  air  or  sand  bath  at 
a  temperature  between  240  and  280  degrees  ahr.  for  one  hour. 
Weigh  it  and  record  the  loss,  then  heat  and  weigh  it  again 
repeatedly,  at  intervals  of  an  hour  or  less,  until  the  minimum 
"weight  has  been  reached  and  the  weight  begins  to  increase  by 
oxidation  of  a  portion  of  the  coal.  The  difference  between  the 
original  and  the  minimum  weight  is  taken  as  the  moisture  in  the 
air-dried  coal.  This  moisture  test  should  preferably  be  made 
on  duplicate  samples,  and  the  results  should  agree  within  0.3 
to  0.4  of  one  per  cent.,  the  mean  of  the  two  determinations  being 
taken  as  the  correct  result.  The  sum  of  the  percentage  of 
moisture  thus  found  and  the  percentage  of  surface  moisture 
previously  determined  is  the  total  moisture. 

XYI.  Treatment  of  Ashes  and  Refuse. — The  ashes  and  refuse 
are  to  be  weighed  in  a  dry  state.  If  it  is  found  desirable  to 
show  the  principal  characteristics  of  the  ash,  a  sample  should 
be  subjected  to  a  proximate  analysis  and  the  actual  amount 


APPENDIX.  189 

of  incombustible  material  determined.  For  elaborate  trials  a 
-complete  analysis  of  the  ash  and  refuse  should  be  made. 

XVII.  Calorific  Tests  and  Analysis  of  Coal. — The  quality  of  the 
fuel  should  be  determined  either  by  heat  test  or  by  analysis,  or 
by  both. 

The  rational  method  of  determining  the  total  heat  of  combus- 
tion is  to  burn  the  sample  of  coal  in  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen 
gas,  the  coal  to  be  sampled  as  directed  in  Article  XV.  of  this 
-code. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  the  coal  should  be  made  only  by  an 
expert  chemist.  The  total  heat  of  combustion  computed  from 
the  results  of  the  ultimate  analysis  may  be  obtained  by  the 
use  of  Dulong's  formula  (with  constants  modified  by  recent 

determinations),  viz.:  14,600  C  +  62,000  (n~\    +   4,000   8, 

\         o/ 

in  which  (7,  II,  0,  and  8  refer  to  the  proportions  of  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, oxygen,  and  sulphur  respectively,  as  determined  by  the 
ultimate  analysis.* 

It  is  desirable  that  a  proximate  analysis  should  be  made, 
thereby  determining  the  relative  proportions  of  volatile  matter 
.and  fixed  carbon.  These  proportions  furnish  an  indication  of 
the  leading  characteristics  of  the  fuel,  and  serve  to  fix  the 
•cLiss  to  which  it  belongs.  As  an  additional  indication  of  the 
^characteristics  of  the  fuel,  the  specific  gravity  should  be  deter- 
mined. 

XVIII.  Analysis  of  Flue  Gase-. — The  analysis  of  the  flue  gases 
is  an  especially  valuable  method  of   determining  the  relative 
value  of  different  methods  of  firing,  or  of  different  kinds  of  fur- 
naces.    In  making  these  analyses  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
procure  average  samples — since  the  composition  is  apt  to  vary 
at  different  points  of  the   flue  (pp.  128  and  129).      The  com- 
position is  also  apt  to  vary  from  minute  to  minute,  and  for  this 
reason  the  drawings  of  gas  should  last  a  considerable  period  of 
time.    Where  complete  determinations  are  desired,  the  analyses 
should  be  intrusted  to  an  expert  chemist.     For  approximate 
determinations  the  Orsat  t  or  the  Hempel  J  apparatus  may  be 
used  by  the  engineer. 

*Favre  and  Silberraan  give  14,544  B.T.U.  per  pound  carbon  ;  Berthelot  14,647 
B.T.TJ.  Favre  and  Silberman  give  62,032  B.T.U.  per  pound  hydrogen  ;  Thomsen. 
€1,816  B.T.U. 

f  See  R  S.  Hale's  paper  on  "Flue  Gas  Analysis,"  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  K,  vol. 
xviii.,  p.  901. 

JSee  Hempel's  "Methods  of  Gas  Analysis"  (Dennis'  Translation). 


APPENDIX. 

For  the  continuous  indication  of  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
present  in  the  flue  gases,  an  instrument  may  be  employed  which 
shows  the  weight  of  the  sample  of  gas  passing  through  it. 

XIX.  Smoke    Observations. — It   is   desirable    to   have   a   uni- 
form system  of  determining  and  recording  the  quantity  of  smoke 
produced  where  bituminous  coal  is  used.      The  system  com- 
monly employed  is  to  express  the  degree  of  smokiness  by  means 
of  percentages  dependent  upon  the  judgment  of  the  observer. 
The  Committee  does  not  place  much  value  upon  a  percentage 
method,  because  it  depends  so  largely  upon  the  personal  ele- 
ment, but  if  this  method  is  used,  it  is  desirable  that,  so  far  as 
possible,  a  definition  be  given  in  explicit  terms  as  to  the  basis 
and  method  employed  in  arriving  at  the  percentage.     The  actual 
measurement  of   a  sample  of  soot  and  smoke  by  some  form  of 
meter  is  to  be  preferred. 

XX.  Miscellaneous. — In  tests  for   purposes    of   scientific  re- 
search, in  which  the  determination  of  all  the  variables  entering 
into  the  test  is  desired,  certain  observations  should  be  made 
which  are  in  general  unnecessary  for  ordinary  tests.     These  are 
the   measurement  of  the  air  supply,  the  determination  of  its 
contained  moisture,  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  heat 
lost  by  radiation,  of  the  amount  of  infiltration  of  air  through 
the  setting,  and  (by  condensation  of  all  the  steam  made  by  the 
boiler)  of  the  total  heat  imparted  to  the  water. 

As  these  determinations  are  rarely  undertaken,  it  is  not 
deemed  advisable  to  give  directions  for  making  them. 

XXI.  Calculations  of  Efficiency. — Two  methods  of  defining  and 
calculating  the  efficiency  of  a  boiler  are  recommended.    They  are  : 

•n«*  •  J?J.T     r.   -i          Heat  absorbed  per  Ib.  combustible 

1.  Efficiency  of  the  boiler  =  ^  .    ^ . *     ., 

Calorific  value  of  1  Ib.  combustible 

r»    -n/*?  •  £  J.T     T-  -i          j  Heat  absorbed  per  Ib.  coal 

2.  Efficiency  of  the  boiler  and  grate =/ri — ^r   —* ^r-rr- 

Calorific  value  of  1  Ib.  coal 

The  first  of  these  is  sometimes  called  the  efficiency  based  on 
combustible,  and  the  second  the  efficiency  based  on  coal.  The 
first  is  recommended  as  a  standard  of  comparison  for  all  tests, 
and  this  is  the  one  which  is  understood  to  be  referred  to  when 
the  word  "efficiency"  alone  is  used  without  qualification.  The 
second,  however,  should  be  included  in  a  report  of  a  test,  to- 
gether with  the  first,  whenever  the  object  of  the  test  is  to  deter- 
mine the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  and  furnace  together  with  the 


APPENDIX. 


grate  (or  mechanical  stoker),  or  to  compare  different  furnaces,, 
grates,  fuels,  or  methods  of  firing. 

The  heat  absorbed  per  pound  of  combustible  (or  per  pound 
coal)  is  to  be  calculated  by  multiplying  the  equivalent  evapora- 
tion from  and  at  212  degrees  per  pound  combustible  (or  coal)  by 
965.7. 

XXII.  The  Heat  Balance. — An  approximate  "  heat  balance,"  or 
statement  of  the  distribution  of  the  heating  value  of  the  coal 
among  the  several  items  of  heat  utilized  and  heat  lost  may  be 
included  in  the  report  of  a  test  when  analyses  of  the  fuel  and  of 
the  chimney  gases  have  been  made.  It  should  be  reported  in 
the  following  form  : 

HEAT  BALANCE,  OR  DISTRIBUTION  OP  THE  HEATING  VALUE  OF  THE  COMBUSTIBLE. 
Total  Heat  Value  of  1  Ib.  of  Combustible. .  .  .B.  T.  U. 


1. 


Heat  absorbed  by  the  boiler  —  evaporation  from  and  at  212 

degrees  per  pound  of  combustible  x  965.7. 
Loss  due  to  moisture  in  coal  =  percent,  of  moisture  referred 

to  combustible  -*- 100  x  [(212  -  £)  +  966  +  0.48  (T  — 

212)]  (t  '=•-  temperature  of  air  in  the  boiler-room,  T  = 

that  of  the  flue  gases). 
Loss  due  to  moisture  formed  by  the  burning  of  hydrogen 

=  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  to  combustible  -5-100  x  9  x 

[  (312  -  0  4-  966  +  0.48  (T  -  212)]. 
4.*  Loss  due  to  heat  carried  away  in  the  dry  chimney  gases  — 

weight  of  gasper  pound  of  combustible  x  0.24  x  (T  —  t). 

CO 
5.f  Loss  due  to  incomplete  combustion  of  carbon  =• 


2. 


3. 


per  cent.  C  in  combustible 
100 


C02    +   CO 


10,150. 


6. 


Lose  due  to  unconsumed  hydrogen  and  hydrocarbons,  to 
heating  the  moisture  in  the  air,  to  radiation,  and  unac- 
counted for.  (Some  of  these  losses  may  be  separately 
itemized  if  data  are  obtaiued  from  which  they  may  be 
calculated.) 

Totals . .  


B.  T.  U.  Per  Cent. 


100.00 


*  The  weight  of  gas  per  pound  of  carbon  burned  maybe  calculated  from  the  gas  analyses  as 
follows : 

Dry  gas  per  pound  carbon  =  11  C°2  +  8O  +  7  (CO  +  ^,  in  which  CO2,  CO,  O,  and  N  are  the 

3  (C02  +  CO) 

percentages  by  volume  of  the  several  gases.  As  the  sampling  and  analyses  of  the  gases  in  the 
present  state  of  the  art  are  liable  to  considerable  errors,  the  result  of  this  calculation  is  usually 
only  an  approximate  one.  The  heat  balance  itself  is  also  only  approximate  for  this  reason,  as  well, 
as  for  the  fact  that  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  accurately  the  percentage  of  unburned  hydrogen 
or  hydrocarbons  in  the  flue  gases. 

The  weight  of  dry  gas  per  pound  of  combustible  is  found  by  multiplying  the  dry  gas  per  pound 
of  carbon  by  the  percentage  of  carbon  in  the  combustible,  and  dividing  by  100. 

tCO2  and  CO  are  respectively  the  percentage  by  volume  of  carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  oxide  in 
the  flue  gases.  The  quantity  10,150  =  No.  heat  units  generated  by  burning  to  carbonic  acid  one- 
pound  of  carbon  contained  in  carbonic  oxide. 

XXIII.  Report  of  the  Trial. — The  data  and  results  should  be 
reported  in  the  manner  given  in  either  one  of  the  two  following 


192  APPENDIX. 

tables,  omitting  lines  where  the  tests  have  not  been  made  as 
elaborately  as  provided  for  in  such  tables.  Additional  lines  may- 
be added  for  data  relating  to  the  specific  object  of  the  test.  The 
extra  lines  should  be  classified  under  the  headings  provided  in 
the  tables,  and  numbered  as  per  preceding  line,  with  sub  letters 
a,  6,  etc.  The  Short  Form  of  Report,  Table  No.  2,  is  recom- 
mended for  commercial  tests  and  as  a  convenient  form  of 
abridging  the  longer  form  for  publication  when  saving  of  space 
is  desirable.  For  elaborate  trials,  it  is  recommended  that  the 
full  log  of  the  trial  be  shown  graphically,  by  means  of  a  chart. 

TABLE  NO.  1. 
DATA  AND  RESULTS  OF  EVAPORATIVE  TEST, 

Arranged  in  accordance  with  the  Complete  Form  advised  by  the   Boiler   Test 
.  Committee  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers.     Code  of  1899. 

Made  by of boiler  at to 

determine 

Principal  conditions  governing  the  trial 


Kind  of  fuel* 

Kind  of  furnace  .... 
State  of  the  weather. 


Method  of  starting  and  stopping  the  test  ("  standard"  or  "  alternate,"   Art.  X 
and  XL,  Code) 

1.  Date  of  trial 

2.  Duration  of  trial hours. 

Dimensions  and  Proportions. 

(A  complete  description  of  the  boiler,  and  drawings  of  the  same  if  of  unusual 
type,  should  be  given  on  an  annexed  sheet.     (See  Appendix  X.) 

3.  Grate  surface width length area sq.  ft. 

4.  Height  of  furnace ins. 

5.  Approximate  width  of  air  spaces  in  grate in. 

6.  Proportion  of  air  space  to  whole  grate  surface per  cent. 

7.  Water-heating  surface sq.  ft. 

8.  Superheating  surface 

9.  Ratio  of  water-heating  surface  to  grate  surface. —  to  1. 

10.  Ratio  of  minimum  draft  area  to  grate  surface 1  to  — 

*  The  items  printed  in  italics  correspond  to  the  items  in  the  "  Short  Form  of  Code," 


APPENDIX.  193 

Average,  Pressures. 

11.  Steam  pressure  by  gauge Ibs.  persq.in. 

12.  Force  of  draft  between  damper  and  boiler ins.  of  water. 

18.  Force  of  draft  in  furnace "  " 

14.  Force  of  draft  or  blast  in  ashpit "  " 


Average  Temperatures. 

15.  Of  external  air deg. 

16.  Of  fireroom 

17.  Of  steam 

18.  Of  feed  water  entering  heater , " 

19.  Of  feed  water  entering  economizer " 

20.  Of  feed  water  entering  boiler " 

21.  Of  escaping  gases  from  boiler " 

22.  Of  escaping  gases  from  economizer " 


Fuel. 

23.  Size  and  condition    

24.  Weight  of  wood  used  in  lighting  fire Ibs. 

25.  Weight  of  coal  as  fired*  .... 

26.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  coal  \ per  cent. 

27.  Total  weight  of  dry  coal  consumed Ibs. 

28.  Total  ash  and  refuse 

29.  Quality  of  ash  and  refuse 

30.  Total  combustible  consumed Ibs. 

31.  Percentage  of  ash  and  refuse  in  dry  coal per  cent. 


Proximate  Analysis  of  Coal. 


Of  Coal.       Of  Combustible. 

32.  Fixed  carbon per  cent.        per  cent. 

33.  Volatile  matter 

34.  Moisture 

35.  Ash  . ,  "  


100  per  cent.     100  per  cent. 
36.  Sulphur,  separately  determined    "  " 


*  Including  equivalent  of  wood  used  in  lighting  the  fire,  not  including  unburnt  coal  withdrawn 
from  furnace  at  times  of  cleaning  and  at  end  of  test.  One  pound  of  wood  is  taken  to  be  equal  to 
0.4  pound  of  coal,  or,  in  ca*e  greater  accuracy  is  desired,  as  having  a  heat  value  equivalent  to  the 
evaporation  of  6  pounds  of  water  from  and  at  212  degrees  per  pound.  (6  x  965.7  =  5,794  B.  T.  U.) 
The  term  "as  fired  "  means  in  its  actual  condition,  including  moisture. 

t  This  is  the  total  moisture  in  the  coal  as  found  by  drying  it  artificially,  as  described  in  Art. 
XV.  of  Code. 

2 


104  APPENDIX. 

Ultimate  Analysis  of  Dry  Coal. 

(Art.  XVII.,  Code.) 

Of  Coal.       Of  Combustible. 

37.  Carbon  (C) per  cent.        per  cent. 

38.  Hydrogen  (B) 

39.  Oxygen  (0) 

40.  Nitrogen  (JT) 

41.  Sulphur  (8) 

42.  Ash 

100  per  cent.     100  per  cent. 

43.  Moisture  in  sample  of  coal  as  received 

Analysis  of  Ash  and  Refuse. 

44.  Carbon per  cent, 

45.  Earthy  matter 

Fuel  per  Hour. 

46.  Dry  coal  consumed  per  hour Ibs. 

47.  Combustible  consumed  per  hour " 

48.  Dry  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour 

49.  Combustible  per  square  foot  of  water-heating  surface  per  hour.  " 

Calorific  Value  of  Fuel. 
(Art.  XVII.,  Code.) 

50.  Calorific  value  by  oxygen  calorimeter,  per  Ib.  of  dry  coal B.  T.  U. 

61.  Calorific  value  by  oxygen  calorimeter,  per  Ib.  of  combustible 

52.  Calorific  value  by  analysis,  per  Ib.  of  dry  coal  * 

53.  Calorific  value  by  analysis,  per  Ib.  of  combustible 

Quality  of  Steam. 

54.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  steam per  cent. 

55.  Number  of  degrees  of  superheating deg. 

56.  Quality  of  steam  (dry  steam  =  unity).     (For  exact  determina- 

tion of  the  factor  of  correction  for  quality  of  steam  see  Ap- 
pendix XVIII.) 

Water. 

57.  Total  weight  of  water  fed  to  boiler  ^ Ibs. 

58.  Equivalent  water  fed  to  boiler  from  and  at  212  degrees 

59.  Water  actually  evaporated,  corrected  for  quality  of  steam. ....... 

*  See  formula  for  calorific  value  under  Article  XVTI.  of  Code,  also  page  7. 

t  Corrected  for  inequality  of  water  level  and  of  steam  pressure  at  beginning  and  end  of  test. 


APPENDIX.  195 

60.  Factor  of  evaporation  * . Ibs. 

61.  Equivalent  water  evaporated  into  dry  steam  from  and  at  212 

degrees,  f     (Item  59  x  Item  60.) " 

Water  per  Hour. 

63.   Water  evaporated  per  hour,  corrected  for  quality  of  steam " 

63.  Equivalent  evaporation  per  hour  from  and  at  212  degrees^ " 

64.  Equivalent  evaporation  per  hour  from  and  at  212  degrees  per 

square  foot  of  water-heating  surface  \ " 

Horse-Power. 

65.  Horse-power  developed.     (34£  Ibs.  of  water  evaporated  per  hour 

into  dry  steam  from  and  at  213  degrees,  equals  one  horse- 
power) \ H.  P. 

66.  Builders'  rated  horse-power . " 

67.  Percentage  of  builders'  rated  horse-power  developed per  cent. 

Economic  Results. 

68.  Water  apparently  evaporated  under  actual  conditions  per  pound 

of  coal  as  fired.     (Item  58  -*-  Item  25. ) Ibs. 

69.  Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  per  pound  of 

coal  as  fired,  f    (Item  61  -f-  Item  25.) . .  " 

70.  Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  per  pound  of  dry 

coal.\    (Item  61  -f-  Item  27.) " 

71.  Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  per  pound  of 

combustible,  f    (Item  61  -r-  Item  30.) " 

(If  the  equivalent  evaporation,  Items  69,  70,  and  71,  is  not  cor- 
rected for  the  quality  of  steam,  the  fact  should  be  stated). 


Efficiency. 
(Art.  XXI.,  Code.) 

72.  Efficiency  of  the  boiler  ;  heat  absorbed  by  the  boiler  per  Ib.  of  com- 

bustible divided  by  the  heat  value  of  one  Ib.  of  combustible  %  ____        per  cent, 

73.  Efficiency  of  boiler,  including  the  grate;  heat  absorbed  by  the 

boiler,  per  Ib.  of  dry  coal,  divided  by  the  heat  value  of  one  Ib.  of 

dry  coal  ................................................  «« 


*  Factor  of  evaporation  = 


in  which  H  and  h  are  respectively  the  total  heat  in  steam  of 

the  average  observed  pressure,  and  in  water  of  the  average  observed  temperature  of  the  feed. 

t  The  symbol  "  U.  E."  meaning  "  Units  of  Evaporation,"  may  be  conveniently  substituted  for 
the  expression  "Equivalent  water  evaporated  into  dry  steam  from  arid  at  212  degrees,"  its  defini- 
tion being  given  in  a  foot-note. 

$  Held  to  be  the  equivalent  of  30  Ibs.  of  water  per  hour  evaporated  from  100  degrees  Fahr.  into 
dry  steam  at  70  Ibs.  g-auge  pressure.  (See  Introduction  to  Code.) 

§  In  all  cases  where  the  word  combustible  is  used,  it  means  the  coal  without  moisture  and  ash, 
but  including  all  other  constituents.  It  is  the  same  as  what  is  called  in  Europe  "  coal  dry  and  free 
from  ash." 


196  APPENDIX. 

Cost  of  Evaporation. 

74.  Cost  of  coal  per  ton  of Ibs.  delivered  in  boiler  room $• 

75.  Cost  of  fuel  for  evaporating  1,000  Ibs.  of  water  under  observed 

conditions $ 

76.  Cost  of  fuel  used  for  evaporating  1,000  Ibs.  of  water  from  and  at 

212  degrees , $ 

Smoke  Observations. 

77.  Percentage  of  smoke  as  observed per  cent, 

78.  Weight  of  soot  per  hour  obtained  from  smoke  meter ounces 

79.  Volume  of  soot  per  hour  obtained  from  smoke  meter cub.  in.. 

Methods  of  Firing. 

80.  Kind  of  firing  (spreading,  alternate,  or  coking) 

81.  Average  thickness  of  fire 

82.  Average  intervals  between  firings  for  each  furnace  during  time 

when  fires  are  in  normal  condition 

83.  Average  interval  between  times  of  levelling  or  breaking  up. ... 

Analyses  of  the  Dry  Gases. 

84.  Carbon  dioxide  ((702) : per  cent. 

85.  Oxygen  (0) 

86.  Carbon  monoxide  (CO] 

87.  Hydrogen  and  hydrocarbons " 

88.  Nitrogen  (by  difference)  (N) 


100  per  cent. 
TABLE  NO.  2. 

DATA  AND  RESULTS  OF  EVAPORATIVE  TEST, 

Arranged  in  accordance  with  the  Short  Form  advised  by  the  Boiler  Test  Com- 
mittee of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers.     Code  of  1899. 

Made  by on boiler,  at to 

determine '. . . 

Kind  of  fuel 

Kind  of  furnace 

Method  of  starting  and  stopping  the  test  ("standard"  or  "  alternate,"  Art.  X_ 

and  XL ,  Code) 

Grate  surface sq.   ft. 

Water-heating  surface " 

Superheating  surface " 

Total  Quantities. 

1.  Date  of  trial 

2.  Du  ration  of  trial hours. 

3.  Weight  of  coal  as  fired  * Ibs. 

4.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  coal  * per  cent. 

5.  Total  weight  of  dry  coal  consumed Ibs. 

6.  Total  ash  and  refuse .  " 

7.  Percentage  of  ash  and  refuse  in  dry  coal per  cent. 


*  See  foot-notes  of  Complete  Form. 


APPENDIX. 


197 


8.  Total  weight  of  water  fed  to  tue  boiler  * Ibs. 

9.  Water  actually  evaporated,  corrected  for  moisture  or  super- 

heat in  steam " 

10.  Equivalent  water  evaporated  into  dry  steam  from  and  at  212 

degrees  * *4 

Hourly  Quantities. 

11.  Dry  coal  consumed  per  hour Ibsi 

12.  Dry  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour ** 

13.  Water  evaporated  per  hour  corrected  for  quality  of  steam. ...  " 

14.  Equivalent  evaporation  per  hour  from  and  at  212  degrees  *.  . .  " 

15.  Equivalent  evaporation  per  hour  from  and  at  212  degrees  per 

square  foot  of  water-heating  surface  * " 

Average  Pressures,  Temperatures,  etc. 

16.  Steam  pressure  by  gauge Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

17.  Temperature  of  feed  water  entering  boiler deg. 

18.  Temperature  of  escaping  gases  from  boiler " 

19.  Force  of  draft  between  damper  and  boiler ins.  of  water.. 

20.  Percentage  of  moisture  in  steam,  or  number  of  degrees  of 

superheating per  cent,  ordeg. 

Horse-Power. 

21.  Horse-power  developed  (Item  14  -5-  34$)  * H.  P. 

22.  Builders'  rated  horse-power " 

23.  Percentage  of  builders'  rated  horse-power  developed per  cent. 

Economic  Results. 

24.  Water   apparently   evaporated   under    actual    conditions  per 

pound  of  coal  as  fired.     (Item  8  -4-  Item  3) Ibs. 

25.  Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  per  pound  of 

coal  as  fired.*     (Item  9  -=-  Item  3) " 

26.  Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  per  pound  of  " 

dry  coal.*    (Item  9 -j- Item  5) 

27.  Equivalent  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees  per  pound  of 

combustible.*    [Item  9  -r-  (Item  5  —  Item  6)] 

(If  Items  25,  26,  and  27  are  not  corrected  for  quality  of  steam, 
the  fact  should  be  stated.) 

Efficiency. 

28.  Calorific  value  of  the  dry  coal  per  pound B.  T.  U. 

29.  Calorific  value  of  the  combustible  per  pound "    "    " 

30.  Efficiency  of  boiler  (based  on  combustible)  * per  cent. 

31.  Efficiency  of  boiler,  including  grate  (based  on  dry  coal) 

Cost  of  Evaporation. 

32.  Cost  of  coal  per  ton  of Ibs.  delivered  in  boiler-room $ 

33.  Cost  of  coal  required  for  evaporating  1,000  pounds  of  water 

from  and  at  212  degrees $ 

*  See  foot-notes  of  Complete  Form. 


198 


7 'ABLE   I. 


TABLE   L— HEAT   OF   COMBUSTION   OF   SUBSTANCES. 


Calories. 

B.  T.  U. 

Crystallized  carbon  to  COa  .  . 

7859 

14146 

Berthelot 

to  CO... 

2405 

4329 

" 

Amorphous  carbon  to  CO3.. 

8137 

14647 

it 

"       to  CO... 

2489 

4480 

M 

Graphite  to  COa  

7901 

14222 

" 

Petroleum  coke  to  COa  

8017 

14503 

Mahler 

8047 

14485 

F.  &  S. 

Carbon  vapor  to  COa  

11328 

20390           j 

Calculated. 
Page  174. 

7800  to    9000 

14040  to  16200 

Various 

S-  Lignite  (pure  and  dry)  

6000  to    7000 

10800  to  12600 

" 

7140 

12852 

Schwackhofer 

Soft  charcoal  

7071 

12723 

" 

4200 

7560 

Berthelot 

5050 

9090 

Gottlieb 

"  'Hard  wood,  

4750 

8550 

" 

k-peat  

5940 

10692 

Bainbridge 

Cane  sugar  

3961 

7130 

Berthelot 

Asphalt  

9532 

17159 

Slosson  &  Colburn 

Pitch  

8400 

15120 

Anon. 

9690 

16842 

Berthelot 

Paraffin  

IIOOO 

19800 

Mahler 

Tallow  

9500 

17100 

Stohmann 

Sulphur  

2500 

4500 

Berthelot 

t  ~  Petroleum  

9600  to  1  1000 

17280  to  19800 

Various 

Schist-oil  

9000  to  i  oooo 

1620010  18000 

" 

8900 

16020 

Ste-Claire  Deville 

Cotton  oil.  

9500 

17100 

Anon. 

Rape  oil  

9489 

17080 

Stohmann 

Olive  oil  

9473 

17051 

M 

Sperm  oil  

1  0000 

18000 

Gibson 

/—  Hydrogen  

34500 

62100 

Berthelot 

Carbonic  oxide  

2435 

4383 

*< 

Marsh  gas  

13343 

24017 

'• 

Olefiant  gas  

12182 

21898 

" 

-)  -Acetylene  

12142 

21856 

" 

Carbon  vapor  (diamond).  .  . 

"134 

20041 

" 

Coal  gas  

4440  to    7370 

799010  12266 

Various 

10800 

19440 

Anon. 

Air  producer  gas  

773  to    1370 

1391  to    2466 

Various 

2350  to    3032 

423010  5458 

" 

Mixed  gas  

1015  to    1548 

1827  to    2786 

" 

TABLE   II. 


199 


TABLE    II.— THERMOMETER  REDUCTION  TABLES. 


A.     CENTIGRADE  TO  FAHRENHEIT. 


c. 

F. 

C. 

F. 

C. 

F. 

C. 

F. 

I 

1.8 

IO 

18 

100 

1  80 

1000 

1800 

2 

3-6 

20 

36 

200 

360 

2OOO 

3600 

3 

5-4 

30 

54 

300 

54P 

3000 

5400 

4 

7-2 

40 

72 

4OO 

720 

4000 

7200 

5 

9.0 

50 

90 

500 

900 

5COO 

9000 

6 

10.8 

60 

108 

600 

1080 

6OOO 

10800 

•t 

12.6 

70 

126 

700 

1260 

7OOO 

12600 

8 

14.4 

80 

144 

800 

1440 

8000 

14400 

9 

16.2 

90 

162 

900 

1620 

9000 

16200 

B.     FAHRENHEIT  TO  CENTIGRADE. 

C. 
551 

i66f 

222f 


F. 

C. 

F. 

C. 

F. 

i 

1 

10 

5l 

100 

2 

4 

20 

zz| 

200 

3 

i« 

30 

i6f 

300 

4 

a$ 

40 

22| 

400 

5 

21 

50 

27* 

500 

6 

3| 

60 

33| 

600 

7 

3t 

70 

38| 

700 

8 

4| 

80 

44| 

800 

9 

5 

90 

50 

900 

333^ 


444f 
500 


F. 

1OOO 
2OOO 
3000 
4OOO 
5000 
6000 
7000 
8000 
9000 


C. 

555f 

1 666 1 

2222| 

27771 
3333t 

3888f 

4444.1 
5000 


Having1  given  Centigrade  degrees,  obtain  from  Table  A  the 
.corresponding  equivalents,  and  to  their  sum  add  32°. 

Example:  Find  Fahrenheit  degrees  corresponding  to 
416°  C. 

720+  18  +  10.8  +32  —  780.8. 

Having  given  Fahrenheit  degrees,  subtract  32°  and  find  the 
value  in  Table  B  corresponding  to  the  remainder. 

Example  :     Find    Centigrade    degrees    corresponding    to 


-16  -  32  =  -48,  -48°  F.  =  - 


=  -26$. 


200 


TABLES  III, 


TABLE  III.— THEORETICAL  FLAME  TEMPERATURES. 


In  Oxygen. 

In  Air. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit- 

C  to  CO  

4265° 
1  0000 

7010 

6727 
7971 
9659 

11300 

9350 
2500 
5400 

7558 

9444 
5800 
3000 
3800 
2300 

7677° 
ISOOO 
12618 
I2I08 
14348 
17286 
20340 
16830 
4500 
9720 
13604 
17000 
10440 
5400 
6840 
4140 

1462° 
2718 
3000 
2674 
2245 
3000 
3400 
2790 
1200 
27OO 
2400 
2730 
2280 
1200 
1500 
IO6O 

2639° 
4892 
5400 
4813 
4036 
5400 
6l2O 
5022 
2l6o 
4860 
4320 
4914 
4104 
2l6o 
2700 
1908 

C  to  CO2  

CO  to  COa  

Olefiant  gas  C3H4  

Wood       

Sulphur  to  H2SO4  

TABLE  IV.— WEIGHT  AND  VOLUME  OF  GASES. 


Name. 

Weight. 

Volume. 

Per  Cubic 
Metre  in 
Kilograms. 

Per  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

Per  Kilogram' 
in  Cubic 
Metres. 

Per  Pound 
in 
Cubic  Feet. 

Air  

.29318 
.25616 
.4298 
.08961 
.9666 
.2515 
.0727 
0.8047 
2  .  8605 
I.25I9 

0.7155 
I.igOO 

3-3333 
I.34I5 

0.08073 
0.07845 
0.08926 
0.00559 
0.12344 
0.07817 
0.06696 
0.05022 
0.1787 
0.07814 
0.04466 
0.07428 
0.208 
0.08565 

0.773 
0.796 
0.699 
11.160 
0.508 
0.8oo 
0.932 
1.242 
0-349 
0.799 
1-397 
0.840 
0.303 
0.746 

12.385 
12.763 
I  I  .  203 
178.83 
8.147 
I  2  .  8OO- 
14.930 
19.912 

5.59& 
12.797 
22.391 
13-456 
4.808 
11.950 

Ethylene,  CaH4  

Methane    CH4      .    ... 

Acetylene,  C2Ha  

TABLE    V. 


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TABLE    VII. 


203 


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TABLE    VIII. 


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TABLES  IX,  X,  XI.  2O5 


TABLE  IX.— TABLE  OF  SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  GASEOUS  PROD- 
UCTS OF  COMBUSTION  REFERRED  TO  THE  PROPORTION 
OF  CARBONIC  ACID. 


Proportion  of 

Specific 

Proportion  of 

Specific 

Carbonic  Acid. 

Heat. 

Carbonic  Acid. 

Heat. 

5   per  cent  

0.312 

1  1   per  cent  

0.319 

6     "      "    

0.314 

12      "        "    

0.320 

J            it                 <  t 

0.315 

13    "     "  

0.321 

8     "      "    

0.316 

14    "     ^  

O.322 

9     "      "    

0.317 

15    4<     "  

0.323 

10      "        "    

0.318 

TABLE    X.— HEAT   OF    VAPORIZATION    OF    WATER   AT   o°   TO 

230°  C. 

Temperature.  Heat  of 

Centigrade.  Fahrenheit.  Vaporization. 

o  32  606.5 

100  212  537-0 

230  456  676.6 

JLatent  heat  of  vaporization,  966  (Regnault). 

TABLE  XL— SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  WATER  (REGNAULT). 
Temperature.       Specific  Heat.     Temperature.         Specific  Heat. 

o° i. oooo  110° 1.0153 

IO I.OOO5  I2O I.OI77 

20 I.OOI2  130 1.0204 

30 I.OO2O  140 I.O232 

40 1.0030  150 1.0262 

50 1.0042     160 1.0294 

60 1.0056       170  1.0328 

70. I.OO72       1 80 1.0364 

8O.. 1.0098       190 I.040I 

90 1.0109     2O° 1.0440 

100 1.0130 


206 


TABLES  XII,  XIII. 


TABLE  XII.— VOLUME  OF  OXYGEN  TO  FORM  WATER  WITH  THE 
HYDROGEN    OF  COAL. 


Per  Cent  of  Hydrogen. 


Oxygen  in  Litres  per 
Kilogram  of  Coal. 


2  

112 

'i  . 

168 

4-  . 

.  223 

t. 

•  27Q 

6  

335 

7.. 

391 

8 

.  446 

Q.. 

,  502 

Oxygen  in  Cubic  Feet 
per  Pound  of  Coal. 

.896 
1.792 
2.699 

3.585 
4.481 

5-397 
6.283 
/.I/O 
8.096 


TABLE   XIII.— QUANTITY  OF   AIR    REQUIRED    FOR    PERFECT 
COMBUSTION   OF   FUELS. 


Fuel. 

Composition. 

Air  per— 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Nitrogen. 

Kilogram. 

Pound. 

Coke                    

98.0 
95-4 
87.0 
85.0 
84.0 

77.0 

90.0 
71.0 
58.0 
50.0 
85.0 
68.7 
58.0 
34-0 

I.O 

0.5 

2.2 
5-0 

5-0 
6.0 
5-o 

2.0 
5-0 

6.0 
6.0 
14.0 
22.5 
23.7 
5-9 
5-0 

cu.  metres 
10.09 
9.01 

8-93 
8.68 
8.79 
7.67 
8.53 
7.02 

5-75 
4-57 
10.  76 
14.20 

14-51 
3.16 

.72 

cu.  feet 
162.06 
144.60 
143.40 

I39.4I 
141.07 

123.15 
133.90 
112.43 
92.36 

73-  3& 
172.86 
227.93 
233.06 
50.70 
11.56 

Coal,  anthracite  
bituminous  .  . 

1.8 
4.0 
6.0 
8.0 
15.0 

0-5 

cannel 

smithy  ,  .  .  . 

Charcoal 

19.0 
30.0 
42.0 

I.O 
I.O 

1.4 
43.0 

21.0 

Peat    dry     •  •  .  .  .  . 

Wood    dry  

I.O 

6.2 

3.8 
3-4 
69.0 

Coal  gas                . 

W^ater  gas  

Producer  gas        • 

TABLES  XIV,  XV.  2O/ 

TABLE   XIV.— RELATION    BY   WEIGHT   AND    VOLUME   OF    THE 
COMPONENTS    OF   AIR. 

Air  contains  by  volume  : 

Nitrogen 78.35 

Oxygen 20.77 

Aqueous  vapor o.  84 

Carbonic  acid 0.04 


100.00 

Deducting  the  carbonic  acid  and  aqueous  vapor,  we  have : 
Nitrogen. .  ..By  volume  :      79.04  By  weight :    76.83 

Oxygen "         "  20.96  "         "         23.17 


100.00  100.00 

Ratio  of  nitrogen  to  oxygen : 

N  N 

By  volume,  -—  =  3.771.     By  weight,  —    =  3.32. 

Ratio  of  air  to  oxygen : 

Air  .  .      Air 

By  volume,  — -  =  4.771.     By  weight,  —  =  4.315. 

Ratio  of  air  to  nitrogen : 

Air  ,        „          .  ,  ,    Air 

By  volume,  —  =  1.265.     By  weight,  —  =  1.302. 

TABLE   XV.— IGNITION    POINT   OF   GASES  (Mayer  and  Miinch).* 

Marsh  gas,  CH 667°  C. 

Ethane,  CaH8. 616 

Propane,  C3H( 547 

Acetylene,  CaH, 580 

Propylene,  CSH8 504 

*  Berichte  der  deutschen  Chemische  Gesellschaft  xxvi,  2421. 


208  TABLE   XVI. 

TABLE   XVI.— SPECIFIC    HEAT   OF   WATER. 


Degrees 
Centi- 
grade. 

Regnault.1 

Rowland.2 

Rowland 
(corrected) 
Fernet.3 

Bartoli 
and 
Stracciati.4 

Ludin.8 

Griffiths.* 

0 

I.OOOOO 

I.OOSo 

1.0075 

I 

I.OOOO4 

1.0072 

.0068 

2 

.00008 

.0065 

.0061 

3 

.00013 

.0059 

.0054 

4 

.00017 

.0052 

.0048 

5 

.00022 

.0056 

1.0054 

.0046 

.0042 

6 

.00027 

.0049 

.0047 

.0040 

.0036 

7 

.00032 

.0044 

.0040 

.0034 

.0031 

8 

.00038 

.0037 

.0033 

.0028 

.0026 

9 

.00043 

.0033 

.0026 

.0023 

.0021 

10 

.OOO49 

.OO26 

.0019 

.0018 

.0017 

.OO2O7O 

ii 

.00055 

.OO2I 

.0014 

.0013 

1.0013 

.001636 

12 

.00061 

.0016 

.OOI2 

.0009 

1.0009 

.001242 

13 

.00067 

.0012 

1.0009 

.0005 

1.0006 

.000828 

*4 

.00074 

.0007 

1.0005 

.0002 

1.0003 

.000414 

15 

.00080 

1.  0000 

I.  0000 

.0000 

1.  0000 

1.  000000 

16 

.00087 

0.9995 

0.9995 

0.9998 

0.9998 

0.999716 

17 

.00094 

0.9991 

0.9993 

0.9997 

0.9996 

0.999432 

18 

.OOIOI 

0.9986 

0.9988 

0.9996 

0.9994 

0.999248 

19 

.00109 

0.9981 

0.9984 

0.9995 

0.9992 

0.998864 

20 

.00116 

0.9977 

0.9979 

0.9994 

0.9991 

0.998880 

21 

.00123 

0.9972 

0.9977 

0.9993 

0.9991 

22 

.00132 

0.9970 

09974 

0.9993 

0.9990 

23 

.00140 

0.9967 

0.9974 

0.9994 

0.9990 

24 

.00148 

0.9965 

0.9972 

0.9995 

0.9989 

25 

.00156 

0.9963 

0.9972 

0.9997 

0.9989 

26 

.00165 

0.9960 

0.9969 

0.9998 

0.9989 

27 

.00174 

0.9958 

0.9967 

.OOOO 

0.9989 

28 

.00183 

0.9958 

0.9967 

.OOO2 

0.9990 

29 

.00192 

0.9956 

0.9967 

.OOO5 

0.9990 

30 

.00201 

0.9958 

0.9969 

.0008 

0.9990 

31 

.00210 

0.9958 

0.9972 

.0011 

0.9991 

32 

.00220 

0.9958 

0.9974 

.0014 

0.9992 

33 

.00230 

0.9960 

0.9977 

.0017 

0.9993 

34 

.00240 

0.9960 

0.9979 

0.9995 

35 

.00250 

0.9963 

0.9981 

0.9997 

36 

.OO26l 

0.9963 

0.9981 

0.9999 

1  C  =  i  -{-  0.00004*  -|-  o.ooooogfl. 

8  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  1879. 

3  Ueber  die  Aenderung  der  specifischen  Wartne  des  Wassers  mit  Aenderung  der  Tempera- 
tur.    Vierteljahrsschrift  der  Naturforschergesellschaft  in  Zlirich,  Jahrg.  XLI  (1896). 

4  Sulla  Variabilita  del  Galore  Specifico  dell'  Acqua.    Estratto  dal  Nuovo  Cimento,  Ser.  3 
Vol.  XXII. 

5  Inaugural-Dissertation,  Zurich,  1895. 
*  Philosophical  Magazine,  Nov.  1895. 


FUEL  TABLES. 


These  tables  contain  all  the  available  information  covering 
the  data  required  which  have  been  published  to  date.  They 
contain  analyses  of  the  fuels,  and  the  heat  units  as  determined 
by  the  authors,  whose  names  are  given.  In  some  cases  it  has 
been  necessary  to  recalculate  the  results  as  published  by  the 
experimenters  to  conform  with  the  standard  adopted.  This 
applies  especially  to  the  coals  and  solid  fuels,  the  data  for 
which  are  given  based  on  pure  dry  coal,  i.e.,  on  the  combus- 
tible present.  If  the  actual  test  of  the  sample  as  given  is 
desired,  it  will  be  easy  to  make  the  necessary  deductions. 
Some  of  the  cokes  and  some  of  the  natural  gases  have  been 
calculated,  the  calculated  results  being  within  the  limits  of 

experimental  error  in  these  cases. 

209 


210 


FUEL    TABLES. 


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6       I 

CO    1^*  CO  CO 

O  O  xn  Tf  xn 
co  to  co  co  co 

^  co  O  m  O    OO    ^*  r^»  W    xn 
tocococococotoeotococo 

i 

CM  CO    xn  CM 

M  ^f-  r^  xn 

xn  xn  O  xn  ^ 

xn  in  xn  xnoo   O    O   O   O   xn  O 
t^  t^  CM  t^  oo   O  co  r^  xn  to 

xn  rf  in  T 

m  o  r^  O  O 
xn  m  xn  xn  in 

co   M   Tf-oo   M   CM  xn  r^.  Tf  cooo 

G 
O 

•     •    .  a 

rt 
8 

1  ;|;  ! 

iJ 

5 

s§ 

•:  1  1  2      1 

•fCjl'l  :??|  jo- 

55 

& 

e    v 

1 

II" 

f.  ^5*3Ji,  &S-^ 

|5  |  ^^S^  2-   S  3  fe 

COAL. 


221 


Heat  Units  o 
Combustible. 


O  O  N  co  1000  'to 

to  -}-o  to  M  Tf-  co 

HI   oj   MO  tno   r^«  co 

COTj-N    M  C4    T:}-N    CO 


O  O  co  O  O  co  a  t^co  r^co  TJ-  O  O 
coo  M  r».  t^»  w  T^-  to  o  co  ^J-  M  r^o 
coo  to  M  COM  O  co  o  co  MO  M\O 


vnrt-M    TfCO 

to  to  r-^oo  M 

co  G^co   T  C^  M  o  ^  r~^  Ooo   c^co  GO   M   o  o   co  't-co  to  N   o^co  to 
o  o  o  co  r^»  r^*  o  o  J^*  ^^"  t"*»  t^»  i^1  t^  t^«  i^>»  o 


o^  O  **• 
^co  GO   M 


•qsy 


MMOOO 


M  o66o' 


tocototo 


coO  totooo  tocoto 
OTtcOM    t^ooo    rJ- 


r-.d   O^COM  b  M  T^-uS 


co   O   O   O   Ocnco  toQcovO 
•^•O^M   toto«OMO    O   tnco 


o 

o> 


oo  r^cococo 


O   cototoO 
O^O    CON    O 


totocotoco   O   O   M   w>O   O  vocooo  too   COM 
O^MCOOI   OtoOtot^to 


Mtr>o   O   M   NOcoo 


O   O   O 
coO   O 


toO   O   OtoOtotoOO   to 
t^O^cotoo  ^MOO   TJ-M 


w 


222 


TABLES. 


U 


Authority. 

1 
1 

Q~ 

o«        g 

CO  O* 

So        | 

m  O 
mo 

•qsy 

t^O 
in  T^- 

moo 

•-M 

•jnqdjns 

O    M 

M  in 

o  6 

•uaSo.niM 

•usSXxQ 

•uaSojp^H 

1 

I          1 

«? 

0   rj- 

1 

COO 

Name  or  Location. 

IL' 

Cj       V. 

1 

>  ^ 

2 

di    (O 


pq  pq 


0  Tt  O  oo 

VO     "•>     O     M 


oo  M  o  vO  O  ^t  i~   O  N  co  c 
in  co  in  O  O   in  r^  co  CT>  M   M 

NMO^O"">OCvJinOON>-iOCO'3- 
rf  in  Tj-  TJ-  N    m  CO  CO  N    CS    CO  N    CON 


« 


1-1  m  O  TJ- 
Tfco  oo  eo 
co  m  in  i_, 


r^  moo   O 
t^  -3-  r^.  « 

in  co  t>.  en 


M    O  O  O    N 
r}-  T^-  C<    CO  H-i 


O    COU">M    M    COCOCO 

*-"    CO  Tt  O    COO  O 


m  HI   M   O 

O  O  ci  ei 


m  o*  o  t^  w  N 

d  d  d  d  d  d 


8\n  o  ffi 

o  co  ^7 


cooo  coMOOr>iu^Ti"C 
TJ-TJ-^-Ti-inri-co^J--4-1^-coco^i4 


O    Oco  oo 

MOO    f^* 


CM 


O   t^ 

O   ^ 


CT> 
\O 


O   coco    •<*•  rf  W   M   \rt\n 
moo  o  M   o^  M   cooo  oo 
M  c<  co  ci  cJ  c5  oo  c*o'  O  oo  r^  o*  O 
ooooaooo  t^oo  t^r^r^vo  mxnmo 


8 


Unknown  (anthracite) 
Latrobe  Valley,  Victo 
Newport,  " 
«  « 


b 


COAL. 


22$ 


°^ 

23 


•qsy 


8  • 


Tt  Tf  «  CO 
O  »n  O  m 

w  ocor^ 


vn  O    C^oo   O 


CO  ^T  ^  ^  CO  en  CO 


moo  O   covnN   o 


*^f   C^  CO    ts>*   ^*O    -t^*   W     f") 


in«o   H.   TtM 


2"3-Mf'10MSOMC<M 


r^co  rr  «n  r>i 


rfOco 
enow 


CO  rf  CO  00  CO    O    *>• 

O*  N  oo  m  rf-  N   ^> 

bbddcJddddd 


mOm 


O  O  O  QmOm 
OOOOcONM 


CO    t-l     M     r^M     O     >-lvO     M 


O 

>o 


O   m  O   O 


O   O 


224 


TABLES. 


CO                    ^t  CO  PQ  CO  CO                                CO 

CO  ^  to   N    XO   <N  COONTfMCOCONM  O    XOCC  O    xo   Tt  O 

to  xo  O    xo  xo  O  xo  xo  xo  to  to  xo  to  to  xo  xo  xo  xo  xo  to  10 

8OOOOO  OtOOOOOO  OOOOOOO 

O   O  xo  xo  O  CNI  o   O   co  xo  o  xo  co  O   to  o   c$   coo   ^ 

xoo   N   Tj-O   O  cocoO^xotOTj-^1-  coo  co   r»O   to  co 

CO  CO    ONCO  COON  COCOCOCOCOCOCOCO  COCOCOOOCOCOCO 

o      d  d  w  dodo  do  ddddddd 

^"  l^»         CO    CN!  CO    ^"  to   ON  O    f^*  ^  C1!    to  ^"  CO 

Ococoo^O  to       cotot^i^xoM  r^coOi-ir^coo 

V^JCTN.MMTJ-IH  co       MOtociooi  odoNxotocicNioo 

O  ^       ^J-co  o  oo  M  o  in  co  r^  coco  M  r^ 

OONr^wrt-  CNJ        Oxor>.ONCOM  coONt-.MON^r-. 

•^•TfTfco-^-^f  rj-       O'TJ-CO  COO   '<f  OcO^cOTJ-trjco 

to  ON          COOOCO^-«  toOONXOr^XOXO 

^  N  »r>  o  1-1  o  **        OON^CNiMr^  ONMCor^CMt^io 

ON  w  T^  ^  m  ^*  ci        w  ^"  O  co  r^»  co  ^t*o  O   *"*  w  M  r^« 

CO  ONCO  CO  ONCO  O^    ONCO  O^CO  CO  0s  CO  CO  ON  O^CO  CO  CO 

O  O  CO  CO     O  O  •"*  f^  to  O  ON  to  ON  to  M  ON  O  O 

r}-vOt~--M        co  r^eicodcor^  inON^cocoo'i-< 

M  1H                 M      l-i 

CNlONMMCO1^-  O>t^WOON   Tj-CO 

Ttor^CNi        d  rfcNiocNj-^-tn  ONO  o'  co  co  too' 

CO  CO    t-CO           I>  COCOCOCOCOCO  O' 

M      '•  '  .8*   :::::'•  *  *    • 

^    •-  2  %•••••:::•% 

CO             CXI  •^••••OrjII^J 

JJas^  I           |||     ^ 


•qsy 


•jnqdjns 


COAL. 


22$ 


cri 


<u 

1s* 

S     c/5 


C/5  "    C/3 


oji 

efl.n 


vr>  in  xn  vo 


TfOOONOOOO^OOO-fOOO 
co  -3-  M  O   r»o  co   M   co  ^-  <N  O   coco  (N   O   n 


O  O  •*  O 
rfvO  T}-  -<^ 
O  vr>  r^  TJ- 

QO  CO  CO  CO 


op  tn  O 


O  w>co 
*  r^co  co 
cococo 


•qsy 


O  O  M  O 


r>.  vr>  ^}-  coo  co 


O  co   M   O   ^O   COM   l^  W   C>ir>O   MO       O 
O'-'T}-MC<OC<r^Cv<OOt-c»r>rtO        co 


co  co   t^  CT<O  co   N  O   coo    O  coco 


O        w 

CO          O 


uu-jooccrTt-ootr-co^      co 

COr^COOOO»I>OOOOCOCOQOCOCOCO          CO 

o  oo  r^  O  coco  o  u">  o  O  co        N 

O    »nO    O  CO    ^  CO  t-^  OOO    N          O 

cddo'-^-oci  r^wxAo'd        •*}• 

aoNO»«Tt-  t^  rf  ^-co  M        co 

rt-^-Mcor^m  u>r--Tj-»nco       oo 

O  cK  ^00  06  -^  pJ^MMcd        co 

cocorfr^  t^t^r^r^r-       r^ 

nyiHinu 

:  :  :  :£-  :  :  :  :  :  :^ 
:?i.s5.«S  I  :  :  :  i:| 

iiiitf  ii 

.....  * 

§      ^  x  -S,   ,   , 

8      N  N        :s«n  :::««« 

^S-"-Cv>^3^ 

3       g"  42  2  o 

O      U  M          HP* 


OS 


226 


FUEL    TABLES. 


GERMANY. 

Published  in  this  form  by 


Name. 

Composition  of  Air-dry  Coal. 

Combustible. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

•o    . 
c  c 

<x  v 
e  &> 

Ss 

tuC-3 

1* 

u 

I 

3 
(/) 

Water. 

4 

< 

A.    Ruhrcoal. 

76.30 
79.60 
84.16 
81.82 
83-24 
85.18 
83-55 
79-27 
80.59 
89.27 
81.96 
79-os 

4.65 
4-23 
5-03 
4-85 
4-05 
4-38 
4-54 
5'i3 
4-94 
4.41 
4.81 
4-93 

ts 

7.78 

6.12 

3-13 

4-39 
4-93 
10.36 
6.85 
2-74 
6.62 
10.52 

*  Y 

9  * 
S-oo 
4.11 

'  r 

t   9< 
6.22 

7-43 

1.07 
I.7I 

0.86 
0.96 
1.26 
i.  06 

1.02 
0.63 
1.  12 
1-25 

i-57 
1.62 

' 

>3 

1.  01 

1.49 

/ 

I 
1  .02 

1.  70 

1-75 
1.09 
1.32 
1.14 
1.06 
1.84 
0.80 
2.18 
1.54 
0.70 
1.42 
0.59 

2.08 
0.99 
0.80 

1.70 
1.49 
2.50 

9.71 
6.60 
0.85 

5-n 
7.26 
3-'5 
5-i6 
2.43 
4.96 
1.63 
3-62 
3-2Q 

3-34 
4.86 
9.84 

3.10 
4.09 
17.87 

2  ?8 

88.54 
92.31 
97-83 
93-75 
91.68 
95-01 
94.04 
95-39 
93-5° 
97.67 
94.96 

96.  12 

94.58 
94.15 
89.36- 

95-20 
94.42 
79-63 
95«  70 
94.08 
91.69 
91.97 
94-72 

94.  oo 

95-74 
91.27 
90.  9& 

93-42 
87.32 

94.26 
92.91 
94-59 
9"  -57 
91-52 
85.33 
91.79 

91-23 
92.04 
90.30 
94.10 
87.46 
93-95 
84.84 
90.33 
95-44 
94-77 

3.  Concordia  

4.  Consolidation              

5    Dahlhausen-Tief  bau                              

6.  Dannenbaum  

8    Ewald 

9    Friedrich  Ernestine      

12    Graf  Beust                .             ...          

83.37 
80.08 

80.67 
82.63 
66.20 

f& 

5-42 
4.55 
4-30 

15    Horde    

18    Mont-Cenis  

81.22 
81.65 
82.36 
83.56 

80.48 
80.72 
79.76 
81.36 

79.82 
71-15 

80.35 
78.26 
77-77 
76.20 
77.29 
69.07 
79-'5 
72.96 
76.69 
73.48 
80.43 

7°-33 
79.67 
68.67 
72.98 
81.49 
81.26 

5-" 
4-49 
4-79 
4-77 

5.22 
4.80 
4-77 
4.76 

5-'7 
4-65 

5-21 
5-11 
5.18 
4.98 
4-97 
4.21 
4.72 
5-35 
5.20 
5-03 
5.24 
4.67 

5-21 

4-57 
5-o6 
4-99 
5-3° 

6.32 
4.02 
3.63 
5-" 

V  , 

8. 
8.66 
5-44 
J-33 

8.. 
9.63 

7.84 

8.57 
10.74 
9.28 
8-54 
10.93 
6.52 
11.51 
8.05 
10.86 
7-94 
"•39 
8-37 
10.80 
11.30 

£ 

1.43 

i-53 

±? 

'%* 

1.30 
1-53 

_,__-» 

3 
1.29 

0.86 
0.97 
0.86 
i  .11 
0.72 

1.  12 
I.40 
1.41 
2.10 

0-93 
0.49 
1.05 
0.70 
0.80 
0.99 
0.65 
0-95 

::a 

I  .  IO 

1.05 

1.88 
0.98 
0.92 

1.  18 

1.83 

2.99 

1.22 
1.32 
2.30 
2.03 
2.00 
3.90 
1.92 
3.68 
I.  21 

4-°5 
1-45 
4-82 
i.  60 
3-93 
3-45 
'-73 
1.24 

4.48 
7-03 
6-93 
4-23 

4.12 
3.28 
7.8l 
7.84 

4-73 
9.69 

4-52 

5-77 

6.40 
6.48 
10.77 
6.29 
5.09 
6-75 
5-65 
4-45 
7-74 
4-45 
11.23 

6.22 
2.83 

3  '99 

23    Shamrock          

24    Unser  Fritz                   

28    Wilhelmine  Viktoria  

B.  Saar  Coal. 
\.  Camphausen  Level  III  

4    Friedrichsthal            

Dulong  formula  for  calculating  heat-units  (Verbandsformel)  : 


COAL. 


227 


— Continued. 

request  of  Professor  H.  BUNTE. 


Composition  of  Pure  Coal. 

1 

0 

Fixed  Carbon. 

u« 

41 

ta 

i 

JJ 

J$ 

"o 

> 

Calories  of 
Fuel. 

Calories  of    I 
Combustible.  1 

1 

3 

Hydrogen. 

•o    . 

C  C 

es  v 

u 

$ 

o 

U 

3 

g 

"3 

in 

bib 

C 

^o 

~3 

Q 

Calorimeter. 

bin 
§ 

& 

Calorimeter. 

86.19 
86.23 
86.03 
87.27 
90.79 
80.65 
88.85 
83.10 
86.19 
91.40 
86.31 
82.24 

84.08 

88.55 
89.62 

84.81 

87.52 
83.14 
84.60 
86.33 
89-05 
89-55 

88.22 

85.62 

84.31 

87.39 
89.43 

85.44 

82.17 

85.24 

84.23 

82.25 
83.21 

84.45 
80.95 
86.23 

79-97 
83-32 

f>32 
85.46 

80.43 
84.80 
80.94 
80.79 
85-38 
85.75 

5-24 
4-59 
5-U 
5-17 

!:S 

4.83 
5-38 
5.28 

4.51 
5-°7 
5.13 

5.53 
5.07 
4.12 

l:ll 

5-40 
5-28 

5-43 
4.90 
5-21 
5-04 

5-55 
5  -oi 
5-23 
J5_23 

5 
5-32 

5-52 
5-5° 
5.48 
5-45 
5-43 
4-93  , 
5-14 

& 

K3 

5.34 

5-54 
5-39 
5-60 
5-23 
5-59 

7-37 
7-33 
7-95 
6-53 

3-f 

4.62 

5-24 
10.86 
7-33 
2.81 
6.97 
*o  95 

IO 

5.31 

4-59 

9 
6.58 

9-33 
9.70 
6.72 
4.38 
3-95 
^_5-39 

8. 

9-°5 

5-96 
3-66 

,  ' 

53 
11.03 

8-33 
9.22 
it  .36 
10.13 
9-33 

12.  8l 

7.10 
12.62 
8.75 
12.03 
8.46 
i3.<>3 
8.92 

"•73 
12.51 
8.71 
7.66 

1.20 
1.85 

0.88 
1.03 

1.38 
i  .  ii 
i.  08 
0.66 
i  .20 
1.28 
1.65 
1.68 

39 
1.07 
1.67^ 

64 
i.  08 
2.13 
0.42 

;:f7 

1.29 

I-35 

83 
1.63 

1.42 

1.68 

9-°3 

1.48 

0.91 
1.05 
0.91 

I.  21 
0-79 

*.3« 

J-53 
L55 
2.28 
1.03 
0.52 

1.20 

0.74 

0-94 

I  .  TO 

0.68 

1.  00 

73io 
7467 
8008 
7828 
7829 
8026 
7926 
7549 
7731 
8438 
7824 
7488 

7650 
7973 
7435 

7820 
7804 
6368 
7688 
7859 
7800 

7953 
7992 

7780 
7620 
7^74 
7881 

7700 
6825 

7749 
7527 
7420 
7296 
7397 
6424 
7567 
70S1 
7473 
7016 

775° 
6635 
7678 
6492 
6974 
7752 
7872 

7334 
7537 
8078 
7827 
7816 
8080 

7522 
7736 
8441 
7840 
7486 

8271 
8097 
8194 
8371 
8546 
8459 
8434 
7928 
8278 
8644 
8248 
7794 

8101 

8298 
8172 
8265 
8370 

D53I 
8516 

7899 
8283 
8646 
8265 
7792 

82.27 

75-67 

16.64 

75-I5 
84.78 
77.12 

70.04 
77-52 
73-97 

23.71 
14.16 

21  .04 

70.08 
85-18 
70-54 
74-43 

68.30 
78.82 
86.16 

65.70 
76.28 
71-83 

65.12 
83.55 
66.92 
71.14 

64.96 
73-96 
76.32 

61.36 
72.19 
53-96 

28.38 
14.12 
28.04 
24.98 

29.62 
20.  19 
13.04 

32.65 
22.23 
25.67 

7900 
7482 

8475 
8326 

8225 
8275 
8016 
8043 
8363 
85  -..3 
8655 
8444 

8288 
7965 
&4«3 

8670 

8254 
7837 

8224 
8110 
8286 
7862 
8095 
7556 
8256 

7753 
8127 
7796 
8245 
7619 
8183 
7680 
7744 
8i33 
8314 

8398 
8379 

83^3 
8086 
8016 
8376 
8560 
8682 
8468 

7983 
8420 
8699 

7922 

7983 
8122 

7957 
8032 

7619 
8260 
7718 
8233 
7766 
8109 
7652 
8273 
7729 
7740 
8181 
8287 

7840 
6424 
7662 
7871 
7842 
7978 
8015 

71-38 
78.73 
78.46 
78.36 

65.90 
73-74 
77-56 
80.27 

67.40 

66.90 
71.70 
71-53 
74-13 

61.78 
70.46 
69-75 
72-43 

62.67 

27.l8 
19.99 

70.44 
20.59 

32.22 
25.28 
21.52 
18.55 

30.75 

7637 
7679 
79°7 

"6899" 

75i8 
7538 
7509 
7343 

"6478" 
757i 
7019 
757i 
6989 
7622 
6663 
7763 
6533 
6971 
7798 
7847 

65.49 
62.70 
60.83 
66.40 
61.70 
74.40 
59-37 
61.07 
60.21 

59-72 
59-55 
54-43 
59.92 
50-93 
68.11 
54.28 
54.32 
54-56 

33.19 
35-00 

37-14 
31.60 
34-40 
23.68 
36-95 
37-72 
35-74 

64-95 
62.30 
68.46 
68.50 

53-72 
56.08 
65-63 
64.51 

30.12 

34-25 
29.81 
30.26 

SiooC 


-  +  25008  -  6ooW 


•228 


FUEL    TABLES. 


GERMANY 


Name. 

Composition  of  Air-dry  Coal. 

Combustible. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen 
and 
Nitrogen. 

Sulphur. 

Water. 

JC 

< 

C.  Upper  Silesia  Coal. 

j    Grube  Deutschland  

71.90 

81.12 
77-79 
70.60 

78.31 
73-96 
70.17 

71-45 
74-63 
75-95 

58.01 
51.92 
47-78 

41.41 

35-93 
44-47 
37-i6 
43-37 

4-56 
4.24 
4-85 
4-30 
4.70 
4.40 
5-i7 

4.76 

4-97 
5-35 

4.42 
3-75 
3-83 

3-29 

If, 

3-39 
3.25 
2.79 
3-73 

3-66 
4.48 
•54 
.70 

•05 
•15 
•45 

.10 

4.66 
4.07 

4.24 
4-32 
4.20 
4-58 
4.20 

0.70 
0.81 
0.90 
1.07 

1.  00 

0.78 
o-54 

17-37 
4-93 
10.07 
8.77 
9-87 
15-16 

9-39 

10.06 
9.60 
11.17 

12.  02 

'3-44 
10.92 

9.84 
13.20 
14.69 
9.62 
J7-54 
9.42 
10.72 

21.27 
24.07 
9-55 
29.18 

3.13 
3-M 
4.82 
3-6o 

15.21 
19.14 

18.57 
16.37 
15.84 
15-59 
15-25 

4.04 
4.80 
3'74 
3.61 
2.60 
2.85 

2.01 

i.'S 
1.23 

0.57 
*-57 
0-75 

\\ll 

1.30 
1.80 
0.63 

4.87 
5-31 
5-24 

2.12 
0.99 
1.72 

1.66 
1-93 
3.87 
3-59 

0.26 
o-39 
2.87 
0.61 

1.26 
0.88 
1.19 
1.36 

2.28 
0.78 

1.  00 

1-50 
2.98 
2.58 
2.52 

0.87 
0.88 
1.17 

1.02 

1-43 
0.81 
0.96 

1-58 
1.65 
1.67 
2.28 
2.05 
1-95 
8.14 

8.91 
3-50 
3.68 

7-37 
17.12 
10.  18 

36.26 
45-33 
27-13 
38.68 
22.85 
47-45 
29.27 

29.14 
16.47 
40.35 
14.06 

i.  06 
1.77 
1.76 

2.10 

15-77 
14-77 

l8.9S 
19.40 
IO.26 
13.65 

io-S7 

1.79 
1.71 
2-33 
J-53 
1.79 
0.96 
3-73 

3-44 
6.83 

5'°5 
12.48 

4.32 

!:S 

3-52 
5-50 
3.22 

13-31 
8.46 
22.05 

7.08 
1.99 
8.32 
9-49 
ii.  06 

5-35 
7.29 

6.91 
5-28 
15.89 
5-52 

7.26 
8.10 

6-93 
6.15 

7-73 
5.33 

5-5° 
6.68 
18.52 
9-94 
10.49 

7.42 
6.50 
11.18 
10.74 
10.27 
6.52 
6.41 

94.98 

91-52 
93.28- 
85-24 
93-63 
94-93 
85-99 

87-57 
91.00 

93.10 

79-32 
74.42 
67.77 

56.66 
52.68 
64-55 

S:S 

47-20 
63-4* 

63-95 
78.25 
43-76 
80.42 

91.68 
90.13 
9i-3* 

91-75 

76.50 
79-90 

75-55 
73.92 
71.22 
76.41 
72.94 

90.79 
91.79 
86.49 
87.73 
87.94 
92.52 
89.86 

2.  Gottesberger  Viktoria,  (run  of  mine)  
3    Guidogrube      

7    Schacht  Vereinigt  Feld                       .   . 

D.  Saxon  Coal. 
i.  Kaisergrube  Gersdorf  b.  Oelsnitz  

3.  Zwickau-Oberhchndorf  Wilhelmschacht..  . 
E.  Upper  Bavaria  Molasses  Coal, 
i    Haushamer  Large  Coal  .... 

F.  Saxon  Brown  Coal. 

2.  "  Bach  "  near  Ziebingen  .  .   
3    Meuselwitzer  Revier  "  Fortschritt  " 

45.40 

38.76 
49-31 
28.80 

45-93 

83.24 
81.96 
80.85 
82.69 

54-35 
55-91 

51-74 
51-73 
48.20 
53.66 
50.97 

85-18 
85-30 
80.68 
82.03 
82.91 
88.08 
86.35 

G.  Peat  and  Lignite. 

2.  Compressed  Peat,  "  Hofmark-Steinfels  M  .. 
3.  Lignite,  Josefszeche  in  Schwanenkirchen.  . 

H.  Coal  Briquettes, 
i    Dahlhausen  Tiefbau         ....        

2    Haniel  &  Co 

4    Stachelhaus  &  Buchloh  

J.   Brown-coal  Briquettes. 

2!  Wiirlel-Brikett  C*  Use,  Bergb.-Act.-Ges.  in 

3.  Wurfel-Brikett    S*    Rechenberg    &    Cie., 

5!  Gewerkschaft  "  Schwarzenfeid  "  

7    Zeche  "  Waldau  " 

K.  Gas-coke. 

i    **  Consolidation  "  (Ruhr) 

2.    '  Rhein,  Elbe  und  Alma  "  (Ruhr)  
•a     *  Ewald  "  (Ruhr) 

4     '  Bonifacius  "  (Ruhr) 

6     '  Heinitz"  (Saar)  

7.    *  Konigin  Louise  "  (Upper  Silesia)  

1  Dulong  formula  for  calculating  heat-units  (Verbandsformel): 


COAL. 


229 


— Continued. 


Calories  of 

Calories  of 

Composition  of  Pure  Coal. 

a 

w 

Fuel. 

Combustible. 

c 

a 

tf 

1 

c- 

C        & 

u 

3 

u 

JS 

bi 

c 

a 

tic 

c 

a 

5 

-a 

^•a  £ 

8 

4) 

"S 

rt 

0 

0    fc 

j>  « 

U 

E 

<3§5 

C/5 

U 

£ 

Q 

U 

Z3 

Q 

0  w  '* 

75-7° 

4.8o 

18.29 

I.  21 

65-73 

62.29 

32.69 

6536 

6881 

6891 

7254: 

88.64 

O-     0~ 

4-63 

5-39 

1.34 

o  61 

81.46 

74-63 

16.89 

7643 

7346 

7646 

8362 
7895 

8363; 
708  V 

63.29 
82.83 

5.20 

5-°4 

10.29 

1.84 

71.18 

58.70 

26.54 

6671 

7429 

6662 

7847 

/y°3 
7837 

83.64 

5-02 

10.54 

0.80 

67.82 

63.50 

30.13 

7355 

74M 

7868 

793' 

77.91 

4-64 

15-97 

1.48 

64.19 

61.07 

33-86 

6739 

6804 

7112 

7180 

81.60 

6.01 

10.92 

1.47 

60.50 

54-63 

31-36 

6825 

6801 

7994 

7966 

81.59 

5-44 

11.49 

1.48 

59-75 

56.23 

31-34 

6782 

6750 

7805 

7769 

7162 

7  1  60 

7893 

79OI 

R    °°R 

5-4 

10.55 

i  .99 

0.68 

7292 

y^^y 

7856 

7H64 

73-14 
69.77 

5-74 

5-57 
5-°4 

i8'.o6 

56.50 
45-35 

43-19 

36-89 

36.13 

37-53 

5623 
4836 

7299 

5623 
4851 

7'44 
6512 

/CMJ4 

7M4 
6532 

70.50 

5-65 

16.12 

7-73 

55.13 

33.08 

34-69 

4655 

4710 

6959 

7040 

73.08 

5-8i 

I7«37 

3-74 

30.35 

23.27 

33-39 

3787 

3741 

7068 

6987 

68.20 

4i86 

25.06 

1.88 

26.44 

24-45 

28.23 

2927 

2913 

6072 

6046 

68.89 
71.70 

5.69 

6.54 

22.76 
18.56 

2.66 
3.20 

35-59 
28.30 

27.27 

18.  81 

37-28 
33.02 

4014 
3454 

4059 
3426 

6471 
7112 

6541 
7058 

65.62 

4.92 

26.54 

2.92 

38-51 

27.45 

38.64 

3722 

3870 

5854 

6063 

65-93 

5-91 

19.96 

8.20 

24.98 

19.63 

27-57 

2800 

2818 

6536 

6574 

5-88 

16.89 

5-66 

34-90 

27.61 

35.83 

4285 

4319 

7032 

7085 

60.  61 

5-72 

33-26 

0.41 

29.60 

22.69 

41.26 

3261 

3283 

5383 

5407 

63.02 

5-73 

30.76 

0-49 

i1  .25 

25-97 

52.28 

4331 

4364 

5661 

5704 

65.81 

.1.82 

6.56 

34.00 

i8.ii 

25-65 

2552 

6385 

6421 

57-" 

5^84 

36.29 

0.76 

27.64 

52.78 

3956 

3993 

5024 

5070 

90.79 

4.42 

3.41 

1-38 

84.78 

77.52 

14.16 

7829 

7816 

8546 

8532 

90.94 

4.60 

3-48 

0.98 

85.60 

77-50 

12.63 

7734 

7804 

8593 

8671 

88.55 

4.87 

5.28 

1.30 

76.35 

69.42 

21.89 

7685 

7616 

8429 

8353 

90.13 

4-47 

3-92 

1.48 

83.92 

77-77 

13.98 

7778 

7822 

8491 

8;39 

7I-°5 

6.09 

19.88 

2.g8 

39-87 

32-14 

44-36 

5'65 

5098 

6876 

6787 

70.00 

5-og 

23'95 

0.98 

40.17 

34-84 

45-o6 

4947 

4899 

6303 

6243 

68.49 

5-6i 

24.58 

1.32 

38.92 

33-42 

42.13 

4659 

4583 

6318 

6217 

69  98 

r    84 

22  .15 

477O 

4788 

6610 

6634 

67.68 

O  •  °4 
5-90 

22.24 

J:3 

49.40 

30.88 

40.34 

4523 

6491 

6438 

70.23 
69.88 

5:3 

20.40 
20.91 

3-38 

3-45 

40.78 
40.09 

30.84 
29.60 

45-57 
43-34 

5092 
4756 

5188 
4725 

6784 
6659 

6910 
6616 

93.82 

0.77 

4-45 

0.96 

98.00 

90.58 

0.21 

6967 

7057 

7686 

7785 

92-93 

0.88 

5-23 

0.96 

96-25 

89.75 

2.04 

6982 

7071 

7617 

7716 

93.28 

1.04 

4-3* 

1.36 

95.16 

93.98 

2.5I 

6675 

6716 

7734 

778i 

93-5° 

1  .22 

4.12 

1.  16 

95-30 

84-56 

3-17 

6841 

6851 

7808 

7819 

94.28 

1.14 

2.96 

1.62 

95-41 

85.14 

2.80 

6935 

6936 

7899 

7900 

95.20 

0.84 

3-o8 

0.88 

98.30 

91.78 

o-74 

7271 

7268 

7865 

7862 

96.09 

0.60 

2.23 

i.  08 

94-34 

87.93 

7080 

7111 

7903 

7938 

JiooC-f 


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230 


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Hausham,  Bavar 
Penzberg,  Bavari 
Miesbach,  Bavaria 


COAL. 


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INDEX. 


AGITATOR,  BERTHELOT'S,  27 
Aguitton's  exp'ments  on  coal  gas,  95 
Air,  analysis  (table),  207 

necessary  for  combustion,  125; 

(table  206), 
necessary        for        combustion 

(table),  201,  202 
used  in  combustion,  140 
Alexejew's  calorimeter,  28 

Example,  29 

American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers,  boiler-test  re- 
port, 177 

Analysis,  Cinders,  115 
,  Coal,  113 

,  should  show  what,  114 
,  Coke,  82 
,  Gases,  134 
,  Lignite,  78 
,  Manchester  gas,  93 
,  Peat,  80 
,  Proximate,  77 
,  Waste  gases  (table),  135,  136 
,  Wood,  84 

Andrews'  calorimeter,  47 
Anemometer,  Fan-wheel,  144 

,  Fletcher's,  145 
Apparatus  for  steam-boiler  testing 

should  be  correct,  182 
,  Installation  of,  13 
,  Hirn's,  146 
,  Orsat-Muencke,  135 
Aqueous  vapor,  Heat  of,  159 
Ash,  Analysis  of,  115 
,  Lignite,  78 
,  Peat,  80 

,  Treatment  of,  188 
Aspirator,  Oil,  133 
Atomic  calorie,  2 
Atwater's  calorimeter,  71 

BARRUS'S  CALORIMETER,  38 

Berthelot's  agitator,  27 
bomb,  48 


Bituminous  schist,  79 

Boghead  coal,  79 

Boiler-testing.        See     Steam-boiler 

Testing. 

Bomb.  See  Calorimeter. 
Briquettes,  how  made,  51 
British  thermal  units,  2 

"      to    change    to 
calories,  3 

Brix's  experiments  with  charcoal,  84 
Bueb-Dessau's  experiments  on  coal 

gas,  95 

Bunsen's  researches  on  flame,  168 
Bunte's  experiments  on  coal,  76 
gas-coke  determinations,  9 
experiments  on  waste  gases,  136 
Burnat's  smoke  tests,  155 

CALCULATION 

Air  necessary  for  combustion,  125 

Air  supplied,  140 

Calories  of  the  boiler  test,  159 

Calories  of  carbon,  54 

Carpenter's  calorimeter,  34 

Carbon,  54 

Coal,  66 

Coke,  68 

Colza  oil,  64 

Favre  and  Silbermann's  calorim- 
eter, 26 

Flame  temperature,  169 

Gases,  67,  94 

Heat  units  of  boiler  trial,  159 

Heat  units  by  lead  test,  10 

Heat  units   from  chemical  com- 
position, 7 

Junker's  calorimeter,  41 

Mahler's  calorimeter,  61 

"        ;  abridged,  70 

Regnault  and  Pfaundler's,  18 

Vapor  of  carbon,  173 

Volume  of  waste  gases,  144 

Water  value  of  calorimeters,  14, 
63 

263 


264 


INDEX. 


Calculation;  Weight  of  waste  gases, 

142 

Calories,  atomic  or  molecular,  2 
Kilo-,  3 
Pound-,  2 
To   change   to    B.  T.  U.,  3.     See 

Heat  Units 
Calorific  power,  2 

Ratio  of,  to  fixed  carbon,  78 
Calorimeter,  Alexejew,  28 
Analytical,  74^ 
Andrews,  47 
Atwater,  71 
Barrus,  38 
Berthelot,  48 

corrections,  53 

examples,  54 

operation,  53 
Bunsen's,  74^ 
Carpenter's,  31 

calculation,  34 
Constant  pressure,  20 
Constant  volume,  45 
Constant   pressure   and  volume, 

ratio  of,  45 
Correction  for  F.  and  S.,  16 

Berthelot,  53 

cooling,  18,  60 

Junker's,  42 

Regnault  and  Pfaundler's,  18 
Cost  of,  27 
Dieterici's,  74^ 
Dulong,  20 

Evaluation  in  water.     See  Calo- 
rimeter, Water  value 
Favre  and  Silbermann,  21 

Calculation,  26 

in   complete   combustion   with, 

23,  25 

Fischer,  29^ 
Hartley,  40 
Hempel,  74 
Herrmann,  74^ 
Herschel's,  74^ 
Ice,  74«    x 
Junker,  40 

calculation,  41   . 

errors,  42 
Kroeker,  73 
Mahler,  57 

and  Berthelot  compared,  70 

calculation,  61 
,  abridged,  70 

enamel  chips  off,  58  (foot-note) 

examples,  64 

for  gases,  62 

operation,  59 


Calorimeter,  Protection  for,  13 
Rumford,  20 
Schwackhofer,  35 
waste  gases,  37 
Schulla  and  Wurtha,  74<r 
Thompson,  L.,  43 
Thompson,  W.,  37 
Thomsen,  30 
Throttling,  117 
von  Than's,  74^ 
Walther-Hempel,  74^. 
Water  value 

,  Berthelot's  calorimeter,  14 

by  combustion,  14 

by  mixing,  15 

Favre    and    Silbermann's    cal- 

orimeter, 14 

Fischer's  calorimeter,  30 
Lord  and  Haas'  calorimeter,  14 
Mahler's  calorimeter,  14,  63 
Witz,  74« 

Calorimeter  and  separator,  124^ 
Calorimeters,  12 
Calorimetric  eudiometer,  47 
Candle  power  and   heat  of  combus- 

tion compared,  96 
Cannel  coal,  79 
Carbon,  calculation  of  calories,  54 

calories  by  various  authors,  12 
in  cinders,  115 
"  smoke,  154 

"         "     ;  analysis  of,  154,  190 
oxygen  necessary  for,  125 
vapor,  weight,  and  calories,  173 
Carpenter's  calorimeter,  31 
Carbonic   acid,    Automatic   determi- 

nation of,  147,  148,  150 
in     producer     gases.       See    Gas 

Producer 
in  waste   gases,    81,    84,  91,   135, 

138,  155 
,  proper     proportion      in     waste 

gases,  136 
Carbonic  oxide,  Flame  temperature 

of,  170 

in  producer  gas,  99 
in  waste   gases,    84,  91,  101,  134, 

138  (table  136),  164 
Cellulose,  calories  of,  85 
Char  b  on  roux,  83 
Charcoal,  peat,  80 
wood,  83 

Brix  s  tests,  84 
half-burnt,  83 
Sauvage's  tests,  83 
Scheurer-K.'s  results, 
,  Waste  gases  of,  84 


84 


1NDJLX. 


265 


Cinder,  Analysis  of,  115 

Coal,  Actual  evaporation  of,  76 

,  Air  necessary,  126 

,    "    supplied,  139 

Analysis,  113;  (tables),  209-243 
"         should  show  what,  114 

Bunte's  experiments,  76 

Calories  of,  66 

Difference  in  samples  of,  113 

Gruner's  table,  77 

Heat  of  combustion   (table),  198, 
209 

Johnson's  tests,  75 

Moisture  in,  112,  114,  187 

Morin  and  Tresca's  tests,  75 

Pure,  75 

Ratio  of   calories   and  fixed  car- 
bon, 77 

Ratio  of  hyd'gen  and  carbon,  78 

Sampling,  112,  187 

Size  for  combustion,  24 

Uniformity  in  same  bed,  112 

Weight  of*  in 
Coal  gas.     See  Gas,  Coal. 
Coke,  calories  of,  68 

,  composition  of,  82 

,  heat  of  combustion  (table),  247 

,  kinds  of,  81 

,  use  of,  82 

Colza  oil,  calories  of,  64 
Combustion.     Air  necessary,  125 

Air  supplied,  140 

Heat  of.     See   Heat  of  Combus- 
tion 

incomplete  in   F.  and  S.  calorim- 
eter, 23 

Constant  pressure,  20,  45 
"         volume,  45  ' 
"  "          relation      of,      to 

constant  pressure,  45 
Cooling,  Newton's  law,  60 

Regnault-Pfaundler's  law,  18 
Corrections  for   Berthelot  calorim- 
eter, 53 

Cooling,  18,  60 

Junker  calorimeter,  42 


DASYMETER,  147 

Differential  gauge,  Segur's,  146 

Dissociation,  Effect    of,   upon   tem- 
perature, 168 

Dulong's  calorimeter,  20 

Dulong's  formula,  7 

,  Agreement  of,  with  test,  9 

,  Mahler's  limit  to,  10  (foot-note) 

heat  unit,  21 


ECONOMETER,  148 
Efficiency  of  steam-boilers,  190 
Electric  igniter,  Heat  of,  70 
Evaluation     in    water.      See    Water 

Value 

Evaporative  effect  of  coal,  76 
,  Factor  for,  174 
power  of  fuel,  174 

"  charcoal,  84 
"  gas,  93 
"  lignite,  79 
"   peat,  80 
"  wood,  86 
Evaporative  power  petroleum,  gia 
of  natural  gas,  107 
unit,  179 
Examples,   Alexejew's    calorimeter, 

29 

Berthelot's  calorimeter,  54 
Carpenter's  "  34 

Favre  and  S.          "  26 

Mahler's  "  64 

FAN-WHEELANEMOMETER,i44 
Favre  and  S.'s  calorimeter,  21 
Fischer's  calorimeter,  29^ 
Flame,  168 

Bunsen's  researches,  168 
length,  169 

not  due  to  incandescence,  168 
not  due  to  solid  particles,  168 
Propagation  of,  168 
temperature,  Calculation  of,  169 
,  Loss  due  to  dissociation,  168 
acetylene,  170 
bor-methyl,  168 
carbon  and  carbonic  oxide,  170 
hydrogen,  169 

marsh  and  olefiant  gases,  171 
oils,  172 
petroleum,  172 

producer  and  other  gases,  171 
solid  fuels,  172 
table,  200 

Fletcher's  anemometer,  145 
Flue-gas.     See  Waste  Gases 
Formula,  Balling's,  8 
Burnat's,  144 
Dulong's,  7 
German  Engineers',  8 
Hirn's,  147 
Jacobus's,  144 
Mahler's,  9 
Quality  of  steam,  119 
Regnault,  for  vaporization,  4 
Regnault  and  Pfaundler's,  18 
Schwackhofer's,  8 


266 


INDEX. 


Formula,  Superheated  steam, '123 

Throttling  calorimeter,  122 

Vaporization  of  water,  4 

Waste  gases,  weight,  142,  144 

Welter's,  10 

Fuel,   Air   required  for,   125  ;  table, 
206- 

Air  supplied  to,  140 

Calorific     power     under     steam- 
boiler,  109 

Evaporative  power,  174 

Gaseous,  92 

Weight  of,  in 
Fuels,  i 

,  Division  of,  I 

Tables,  209 

GAS,  COAL 

Aguitton's  experiments,  95 
Bueb-Dessau's  experiments,  95 
Heat  of  combustion  (table),  254 
Mahler's  experiments,  96 
Variation  in,  95 

Gas-composimeter,  150 

Gas,  gasogene;  heat  theory,  97 
Loss  of  calories,  98 
Value,  97 
Varieties,  98 

Gas-holder,  Oil,  133 

Gas,  Natural.     See  Natural  Gas 

Gas,  Producer;  Heat  theory  of,  99 
Heat  of  combustion  (table),  260 
Mahler's  experiments,  101 

Gas-sampler,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  131 

Jones's,  132 
1    Scheurer-Kestner's,  128 

Gas,  water.     See  Water  Gas 

Gaseous  fuels,  92 

Gases,  Analysis,  134 
as  fuel,  92 

Calculation  of  calories,  67 
Comparative  value,  107 
Heat  of  combustion  (tables),  254 
Heat  of  combustion  from  analy- 
sis, '93 
Heat  units,  164;  table,  203 

"          "       example,  105 
Ignition  point  (table),  207 
Weight  and  volume  (table),  200 
Specific  heat  (table),  204 

Gases,  waste.     See  Waste  Gases 
Specific  heat  of  (table),  205 

Gottlieb's  wood  tests,  86 

Gruener's  coal  table,  77 

HEAT 

balance  in  boiler  trials,  191 


Heat,  Loss  of,  in  producer  gas,  104 
of  aqueous  vapor,  159 
combination,  94 
combustible  gases,. 164 
combustion,  3 

and  candle  power,  96 
;  Calculated  vs.  det'mined,  9 
Cause  of  disagreement,  10 
Determination  of,  3,  4 
From  chem.  composition,  7 
,  Litharge  or  lead  test,  10 
Methods  of  determining,  7 
of  carbon,  12,  54 
carbon  vapor,  173 
coal,  66 
coke,  68 
colza  oil,  64 
constant  pressure,  20 
constant  pressure  and  volume, 

45 

electric  igniter,  70 
fuels  (tables),  209 
gas,  67 

gases,  calculation,  68,  93 
gases,  difference  in,  94 
gases,    modified    by    condensa- 
tion, 94 

gases  (table),  203,  254  et  seq. 
hydrogen,  97 
hygroscopic  water,  162 
marsh  gas,  97 
natural  gas,  106;  table,  254 
oils  (table),  251 
defiant  gas,  97 
petroleum,  90 

sensible  of  the  temperature,  160 
soot,  166 
vaporization  of  water,  4;  table, 

205 

variable  subst.  (table),  198 
water  of  combustion,  162 
Specific;  gases  (table),  204 
waste  gases  (table),  205 
water  (table),  205,  208 
Heat  units,  Dulong's,  21 

from  chemical  composition,  7 
lead  reduction  test,  10 
Ratio  of,  to  fixed  carbon,  77 
of  steam-boiler  tests,  Cal'tion,  159 
of   steam-boiler   tests,    Distribu- 
tion, 167 
Heat  value,  2 

of  fuels  (tables),  209 
Heating  by  charcoal,  84 
coke,  82 
gas,  92 
lignite,  78 


INDEX, 


267 


Heating  by  oil,  89,  90 
peat,  80 
wood,  84 
Hirn's  waste-gas  apparatus,  146 

formula,  147 

Horse  power,  Commercial,  179 
Hydrocarbons,  Unconsumed,  25 
Hydrogen,  Calories  of,  4 

in  cinders,  115 

,  Oxygen  necessary  for,  125 

ICE  CALORIMETERS,  74* 
Igniter,  electric,  Heat  of,  70 
Ignition  point  of  gases  (table),  207 
Incandescence  not  flame,  168 
Indiana  natural  gas  analyses,  105 
Installation  of  apparatus,  13 

JACOBUS'S  FORMULA,   144 
Johnson's  coal  tests,  75 
Junker's  calorimeter,  40 

KENT  ON  WASTE  GASES,   142 

Kent  pressure  gauge,  147^ 

Kent's  ratio  of  hydrogen  and  carbon 

in  coal,  78 

revision  of  Johnson's  tests,  75 
Kilo-calorie,  3 
Kroeker  calorimeter  and  correction 

for  water,  73 

LEAD  OR  LITHARGE  TEST,  10 

is  unreliable,  n 
Lignite,  78 

,  Heat  of  combustion  (table),  231 
Lord  and  Haas  on  Ohio  and  Penn- 
sylvania coal,  9 
Luminosity,  168 

depends  on  pressure,  169 

not  due  to  solid  particles,  168 

MAHLER'S  CALORIMETER,   57 
determinations  of  gas,  101 
experiments  on  coal  gas,  96 
formula,  9 

Manchester  gas,  Analysis  of,  93 

Mixed  gas,  101 

Moisture  in  coal,  112,  114 

Moisture  in  steam,  119,  124,  186 

Molecular  calorie,  2 

Morin  and  Tresca  on  coal,  75 

Morin  and  Tresca's  wood  tests,  86 

NAPHTHALIN, CALORIES  OF.46 

Natural  gas  and  analysis  of,  105 
Calories  of,  106;  (table),  254 
Value  of,  106 


Natural  gas,  Variation  in,  105 
Nitrogen,     ratio      of,      to      oxygen 

(table),  207 

Nixon's    coal  ;     calories     of,    deter- 
mined, 66 

OHIO  NATURAL  GAS,   105 

Oil-aspirator  or  gas-holder,  132 
Oils,  Heat  of  combustion  (table),  251  \ 
Orsat-Muencke  apparatus,  135 
Oven    cokes,    Heat    of    combustion 

(table),  247 

Oxygen,  Compressed,  is  dry,  52 
in  cylinders,  59 
necessary  for  combustion,  125 

(table), 

201,  202 

,  Ratio    of,    to    nitrogen     in    air 

(table),  207 
required  to  form  water  with  coal, 

140;  (table),  206 
To  prepare,  24 

PASTILLES,   HOW  MADE,  51 
Peat,  80 

:  Calories  of  (table),  245 
Petroleum,  88 

,  Calories  of  (table),  251 

,  Calorific  power  of,  90,  251 

,  Efficiency  with,  gib 

heating  tests,  90 

locomotive  practice,  91^ 

,  Steam  used  in  atomizing,  91 

superior  to  coal,  91 

,  Waste  gases  from,  gib 

,  Why  high  heat  yield,  gid 
Pittsburg  natural  gas,  105 
Pneumatic  pyrometer,  152 
Pound-calorie,  2 
Pressure  gauges 

Anemometer,  144,  145 

Hirn's,  146 

Kent's,  I47« 

Segur's,  146 

Producer  gas,  98.   See  Gas,  Producer 
Products  of  combustion  of 

Alexejew's  calorimeter,  28 

charcoal,  84 

Favre  and  Silbermann's  calorim- 
eter, 26 

oil,  91 

Schwackhofer's   calorimeter,  37. 

See  Waste  Gases 
Pyrometer,  Pneumatic,  152 

REGNAULT'S  FORMULA,  4 

Regnault  and  Pfaundler's  law,  18 


268 


INDEX. 


Ringelmann's  smoke  scale,  158 
Ronchamp  coal,  Smoke  of,  156 

"     Waste  gases  of,  135 
Rothkohle,  83 
Rumford's  calorimeter,  20 

SAMPLER,   GAS,   128,  131,  132 
Sauvage's  exp'ments  on  charcoal,  83 
Scheurer-Kestner's   experiments  on 

charcoal,  84 
gas  sampler,  128 
smoke  analysis,  155 
and  Meunier-Dollfus  on  coal,  75 
Schist,  Bituminous,  79 
Schwackhofer's  calorimeter,  35 
Segur's  differential  gauge,  146 
Sensitiveness  of  thermometers,  6 
Shale  oil,  88 

Smoke,  Bunte's  observations,  157 
Burnat's  experiments,  155 
Carbon  in,  154 
Cohen  and  Russell's  experiments, 

158^ 

Fritzsche's  method,  158*7 
Ringelmann's  scale,  158 
Scheurer-Kestner's  analysis,  155 
Tatlock's  tests,  155 
Soda-lime  for  absorbing  moisture,  23 
Soot,  Heat  units  of,  166 
Specific  heat.     See  Heat,  Specific 

"     of    water    not    consid- 
ered, 3 

Steam,  Moisture  in,  117,  119,  186 
,  Moisture  in  flowing,  124 
,  Quality  of,  119,  186 
,  Superheated,  123 
,  Temperature  of,  116 
used  in  atomizing  petroleum,  gic 
Steam-boilers,  petroleum-fired,  91 

,  Lignite-fired,  79 
Steam-boiler  testing 

apparatus  to  be  correct,  182 
Ashes  and  residues,  188 
Analysis  of  cinders,  115 
"          "  coal,  113 

"  waste    gases,    134, 
189 
Boiler     and     chimney     to     be 

heated,  182 

Calculation  of  air  necessary, 125 
"    "  supplied,  140 
"    heat  units,  159 
"    waste  gases, 137, 
142,  147 

Carbon  in  smoke,  154 
Coal  used,  181 
Corrections  of  apparatus,  182 


Steam-boiler       testing,      determine 

what,  log 
Distribution    of    calories,    167, 

191 

Distribution  of  heat,  109 
Duration  of  test,  115 
Early  tests,  109 
Efficiency,  190 

Examination  of  boiler,  etc.,  181 
Heat  balance,  191 
Heat  tests  and  coal  anal.,  189 
Johnson's  tests,  109 
Keeping  records,  185 
Moisture  in  steam,  117,  186 
Moisture  in  flowing  steam,  124 
Need  of  knowledge  of  calories 

in,  109 

Preliminaries  of,  180 
Quality  of  steam,  119,  186 
Report    of    A.    S.    M.    E.    com- 
mittee, 177 
Report  of  trial,  192 

short  form,  196 
Sampling  the  coal,  112 
Scheurer-Kestner's  tests,  no 
Starting  and  stopping,  184 
Temperature  of  steam,  116 
Tern peratu  re  of  waste  gase 8,151 
Volume  of  air  necessary,  125 
"         "     "    supplied,  140 
"         "    waste  gases,  127 
Waste  gas  samples  and  analy- 
sis, 134,  189 
Water  evaporated,  116 
Weight  of  fuel,  in 

"        "  waste  gases,  142 
What  is  necessary,  no 
Sulphur,  oxygen  necessary  for,  126 

TABLE;  AIR  COMPONENTS,  207 
Air  for  combustion,  201,  202 
"    for  perfect  combustion,  206 
Ash  analyses,  115 
Candle  power  and  heat  of  com- 
bustion, 96 
Coal  (Gruner's),  77 
Coke  analyses,  82 
Distribution  of  calories,  167 
Flame  temperatures,  200 
Fuels,  209 
Heat  balance,  191 
Heat  of  combustion,  198 

"  of  cokes,  247 
"  "  fuels,  209 
"  "  gases,  202,  254 

"  lignites,  23 1 
4      "  "      "  oils,  251 


INDEX. 


269 


Table;  Heat  of  combustion  of  peat, 
245 

"   wood,   86,  246 
"      "  vapor'n  of  water,  205 
Ignition  point  of  gases,  207 
Natural  gas,  105,  106,  254 
Oxygen  for  combustion,  201,  202 
Oxygen  to  form  water,  206 
Regnault  and  Pfaundler's  law,  18 
Ronchamp  coal  waste  gases,  135 
Smoke  analyses,  157 
Specific  heat  of  gases,  204 

"      "   waste  gases,  205 
"      "   water,  205,  208 
Thermometer  reduction,  199 
Waste  gas  analyses,  135,  136 
Water  value  calculation,  15 
Weight  and  volume  of  gases,  200 
Wood,  86 

Tatlock's  smoke  tests,  155 
Temperature,  Heat  of  sensible,  160 

of  waste  gases,  151 
Thermal  units,  2 
Thermometer,  4 

,  Correction,    mercury  column,  6 
,  Favre  and  Silbermann's,  6 
,  Metastatic,  6 
,  reduction  table,  199 
Sensibility  of,  6 
Thomsen's  calorimeter,  30 
Thompson's,  L.,  calorimeter,  43 
Thompson's,  W.,  "  37 

Throttling  calorimeter,  117 

UNIT  OF  EVAPORATION,  179 
Units  of  heat,  3 

VAPORIZATION  OF  WATER,  4 

Vaporization  of  water  (table),  205 
Variation  in  coal  gas,  95 

"  natural  gas,  105 


WASTE  GAS  ANALYSIS,   189 
Waste    gases,   automatic    apparatus 

for,  147^ 

,  Bunte's  results,  136 
from  charcoal,  84 
"      petroleum,  91 
"      Ronchamp  coal,  135 
,  Heat  of,  160 
,  Hirn's  apparatus,  146 

"       formula,  147 
,  Schwackhofer's  calorimeter,  37 
(table),  135,  136 
,  Temperature  of,  151 
Volume  of,  127,  144 
Water  evaporated,  116 

,  Heat  of  combination,  162 

,  Heat     of     vaporization     of,    4; 

table,  205 

,  Hygroscopic,  heat  of,  162 
in  lignite,  78 
in  peat,  80 

,  Kroeker's  correction-  for,  73 
,  Specific  heat  (table),  208 
,  Specific  heat  of,  not  considered, 

3 

-value  of  cal'meters,  14,  15,30,63 
Water  gas,  101 

,  Heat  of  combustion  of  (table), 

258  et  seq. 
Theory,  102 
Loss  of  heat,  104 
Weight  of  carbon  vapor,  173 
fuel,  in 
waste  gases,  142 
Witz  calorimeter,  47 
Wood,  condition  for  burning,  87 
Gottlieb's  tests,  86 
Calories  (table),  86,  246 
Hydrate  of  carbon,  84 
Morin  and  Tresca's  tests,  86 
Wood  charcoal.  See  Charcoal  Wood 


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7 


ENGINEERING. 

CIVIL — MECHANICAL— SANITARY,  ETC. 

(See  also  BRIDGES,  p.  4 ;  HYDRAULICS,  p.  9 ;  MATERIALS  OF  EN- 
GINEERING, p.  10  ;  MECHANICS  AND  MACHINERY,  p.  12  ;  STEAM 
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12 


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STEAM  AND  ELECTRICAL  ENGINES,  BOILERS,  Etc. 

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TABLES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES. 

FOR  ACTUARIES,  CHEMISTS,  ENGINEERS,  MECHANICS— METRIC 
TABLES,  ETC. 

Adriance's  Laboratory  Calculations 12mo,  1  25 

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Bixby's  Graphical  Computing  Tables Sheet,  25 

Coinpton's  Logarithms 12nio,  1  50 

Crandnll's  Railway  and  Earthwork  Tables 8vo,  1  50 

Egleston's  Weights  and  Measures 18mo,  75 

Fisher's  Table  of  Cubic  Yards Cardboard,  25 

Hudson's  Excavation  Tables.     Vol.  II 8vo,  1  00 

Johnson's  Stadia  and  Earthwork  Tables 8vo,  1  25 

Ludlow's  Logarithmic  and  Other  Tables.     (Bass.) 12mo,  2  00 

Totteu's  Metrology .8vo,  2  50 

VENTILATION. 

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Baldwin's  Steam  Heating 12rno,  2  50 

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Carpenter's  Heating  and  Ventilating  of  Buildings 8vo,  3  00 

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Wilson's  Mine  Ventilation 12rao,  1  25 

15 


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Alcott's  Gems,  Sentiment,  Language .Gilt  edges,  $5  00 

Davis's  Elements  of  Law. .' Svo,  2  00 

Eminou's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  .8 vo,  1  50 

Perrel1  s  Treatise  on  the  Winds 8vo,  4  00 

Haines's  Addresses  Delivered  before  the  Am.  Ry.  Assn.  ..12nio,  2  50 

Mott's  The  Fallacy  of  the  Present  Theory  of  Sound.  .Sq.  IGino,  1  00 

Richards's  Cost  of  Living .12mo,  1  00 

Ricketts's  History  of  Reusselaer  Polytechnic  Institute Svo,  3  00 

Rotherham's    The    New    Testament    Critically    Emphasized. 

12mo,  1  50 
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Large  Svo,  2  00 

Totteu's  An  Important  Question  in  Metrology Svo,  2  50 

*  Wiley's  Yosemite,  Alaska,  and  Yellowstone 4to,  3  00 

HEBREW  AND  CHALDEE  TEXT=BOOKS. 

FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARIES. 

Gesenius's  Hebrew  and   Chaldee  Lexicon  to  Old  Testament. 

(Tregelles. ) Small  4to,  half  morocco,  5  00 

Green's  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar 12mo,  1  25 

"  .      Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language  (New  Edition). Svo,  3  00 

"       Hebrew  Chrestomathy Svo,  2  00 

Letteris's    Hebrew  Bible  (Massoretic  Notes  in  English). 

Svo,  arabesque,  2  25 

MEDICAL. 

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Mott's  Composition,  Digestibility,  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 

Large  mounted  chart,  1  25 

Ruddiman's  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions Svo,  2  00 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Ox Svo,  6  00 

Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog Svo,  3  50 

Woodhull's  Military  Hygiene 16mo,  1  50 

Worcester's  Small  Hospitals — Establishment  and  Maintenance, 
including  Atkinson's  Suggestions  for  Hospital  Archi- 
tecture  « .12mo,  1  25 

16 


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